Encyclopedia of Marine Biology (12 Volume Set) [Team-IRA]

Contents
Preface
Chapter 1
Functional Morphology in Sea Turtle Skulls
	Abstract
	Introduction
		Basic Terminology
	Skull in Sea Turtles
	Feeding Process and Feeding System
	Feeding Habits of Each Species
		Green Turtle (Chelonia mydas)
		Loggerhead (Caretta caretta)
		Olive Ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea)
		Hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata)
	Methods
		Morphological Analysis through Geometric Morphometrics
	Functional Analysis by Biomechanical Models
	Example
	References
Chapter 2
Ecotoxicology of Sea Turtles
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Ecotoxicology as a Tool for Conservation of Sea Turtles
	Analytical Procedures Used in Sea Turtles  Ecotoxicology Studies
	Chemical Determination of Metals:  Use of Tissue Residues in Sea Turtle Ecotoxicology
	Oxidative Stress Biomarkers
		Reduce Glutathione (GSH)
		Glutathione S-Transferases (GST)
		Glutathione Peroxidase (GPx)
		Superoxide Dismutases (SODs)
		Catalase (CAT)
		Protein Carboxylation (PCO)
		Lipid Peroxidation (LPO)
		Antioxidant Capacity (ACAP)
	Micronucleus Assay
	Organic Pollutants into Sea Turtles
	Case Study: Chelonia mydas Ecotoxicology in Brazil
	Prospects for Ecotoxicology of Sea Turtles
	Acknowledgment
	References
Chapter 3
Sea Turtle Photo-Identification
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Methods
		Sea Turtle Non-Photographic Identification Methods
		Sea Turtle Photo-Identification
		Soft Shelled Sea Turtles
		Other Sea Turtles
		Level 1. Database
			Types of Users
			User Details
			Specimen Details
			Capture Details
		Level 2. Monitoring System of Cephalic Scale Pattern
		Level 3. Interface of Use
	Acknowledgments
	References
Chapter 4
Topological Tools for Evaluating the Structural Importance of Sea Turtles  in Trophic Networks
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Methods
		Topological Approach
			Building the Trophic Network
			Node Degree (D)
			Centrality Indices
			Keystone Index (KI) (Jordán et al. 2006)
			The Topological Importance Index (TI) (Jordán et al. 2009)
				Key Player Problem (KPP)
				Application of Topological Analysis to Evaluate Ecological Role of Sea Turtles
		Results of Topological Analysis
	Conclusion
	References
Chapter 5
Research Techniques in the Study  of Marine Turtle Strandings
	Abstract
	Introduction
		Defining a Stranding
		On the Interest of a Marine Turtle Stranding
			What to Do When Finding a Marine Turtle Stranded on the Beach? Organizing the Response
	Methods
		Stranded Marine Turtle Sampling Techniques
			Stranding Network
			Beach Monitoring
			Integrated Databases
		Studies Based on Stranded Marine Turtles
			Scopes and Limitations
			Data Collection
			Stranding Location
			Species Identification
				Family Dermochelyidae
				Family Cheloniidae
		Leatherback Turtle (Dermochelys coriacea)
		Green Turtle (Chelonia mydas)
		Flatback Turtle (Natator depressus)
		Hawksbill Turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata)
		Loggerhead Turtle (Caretta caretta)
		Kemp’s Ridley (Lepidochelys kempii)
		Olive Ridley Turtle (Lepidochelys olivacea)
			Sex Determination
			Photography Documentation
			Tagging
			State of Decomposition of the Carcasses
			Morphometrics
			Sample Collection
				Live Turtles
				Dead Turtles
				Actions on Live Animals, First Aid In Situ
		External Physical Examination
		Diagnostic Techniques
		Examples of Studies Based on Stranded Marine Turtles
		Parallel Studies That Can be Conducted Associated to Marine Turtle Strandings (in-Water Studies, Aerial Surveys)
	Conclusion
	References
	Annexes
		Annex I. Example of Stranding Data Forms (Modified from STSN)
		Annex II. Basic Field Equipment for Stranding Studies
		Annex III. Equipment for Necropsy in Facilities
		Annex IV. Example of Necropsy Data Form (Modified from Work 2000)
Chapter 6
Genetics and Conservation of Sea Turtles
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Methods
		Analytical Procedures Used in Sea Turtles Genetic Studies
		Microsatellite Analysis (Simple Sequence Repeats - SSRs)
		PCR-RFLP Analysis (Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphisms)
		SNP (Single Nucleotide Polymorphism)
		Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) Haplotypes
		DNA Barcodes
		Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS)
		Studies Case of Conservation Genetic for Sea Turtles
			Dermochelys coriacea: Molecular Data and Its Use on Leatherback Turtle’s Conservation
		Phylogeography and Mixed Stocks at Foraging Grounds
		Population Dynamics, Demographic Histories and Estimations  of Effective Population Size
		RMU´s and Conservation Priorities
		Matings Systems and Multiple Paternity
		Barcodes and PCR-RFLP to Identify Species
			Eretmochelys imbricata
			Caretta caretta
		Brazilian Rookeries
		Brazilian Foraging Aggregation
		Additional Reports: Bycatch and Uncommon Nesting Site
		Brazilian Demography History
		Global Population Structure and Phylogeography
		Hybridization
		Conservation Perspectives for Caretta caretta
		Perspectives for Genetic and Conservation of Sea Turtles
	Conclusion
	References
Chapter 7
Practical Manual on Clinical Cytology and Hematology for Sea Turtle Conservation
	Abstract
	Introduction
		Hematology
	Methodology
		Blood Collection in the Field
		Manual Preparation of Blood Samples
		Counting Cells Manually
		Hematocrit Determination
		Determination of Total Leukocytes and Erythrocytes
		Recording Cell Measurements
		Evaluation of Cell Morphology
		Color Reference of Blood Cell Types Using Diff Quick
	Results
		Blood Samples as Reference Values
			Gulf of Venezuela, Alta Guajira (Montilla et al. 2006)
			The Wildlife Refuge Aves Island, Venezuela
	Conclusion and Discussion
	References
Chapter 8
Arachidonic Acid is a Major Fatty Acid in Gonads of Coral Reef Fishes and Improves Larval Survival of Rabbitfish  Sigunus gutattus
	Abstract
	Introduction
	1. Wide Distribution of Arachidonic Acid as Major Fatty Acid Component in Coral Reef Associated Fishes
		1.1. Coral Reef Associated, Demersal Fishes
		1.2. Tropical Pelagic Fishes
		1.3. Possible Origin of ArA in Coral Reef
		1.4. Rabbitfish
	2. Effects of Dietary Arachidonic Acid Supplementation on Reproductive Performance of Rabbitfish Broodstock
		2.1. First Trial
		2.2. Second Trial
	3. Effects of DHA/Arachidonic Acid-Enriched Rotifers  on Survival and Growth of Rabbitfish Fry
		3.1. Preliminary Studies
		3.2. Materials and Methods
		3.3. Survival and Growth
	Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
Chapter 9
Proteins Responsive to Variable Temperature Exposure in the Reef-Building Coral Seriatopora hystrix
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Materials and Methods
		SHVTS
		Protein Extraction
		2D Gel Electrophoresis 1st Dimension-Isoelectric Focusing
		2D Gel Electrophoresis 2nd Dimension-SDS-PAGE
		MS
		MS Data Analysis
		Western Blotting
	Results
		Differentially Expressed Proteins Uncovered by a 2D + MS-Based Approach
		RBCL Western Blot
	Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	Author Contribution Statement
	References
Chapter 10
Arachidonic Acid Distribution  in Seaweed, Seagrass, Invertebrates  and Dugong in Coral Reef Areas
	Abstract
	1. Introduction
	2. Methodology
	3. Fatty Acid Composition
		I. Invertebrates
			Corals
			Crustaceans
			Shells
		II. Aquatic Plants
			Seaweed and Seagrass
		III. Dugong
	Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
Chapter 11
Coral Skeletons as a Recorder  of Metal Pollution:  Environmental Monitoring  in the Gulf of Thailand
	Abstract
	1. Introduction
	2. Materials and Methods
		2.1. Study Location
		2.2. Sampling
		2.3. Preparation of CaCO3 Matrix Standard
		2.4. LA-ICP-MS Analysis
		2.5. Stable Isotopic Analysis
	3. Results
		3.1. Seawater Temperature, Salinity, and Oxygen Isotope
		3.2. Oxygen and Carbon Isotopes in Coral
		3.3. Me/Ca in Coral
	4. Discussion
		4.1. Salinity and δ18Ow in Seawater, and Oxygen and Carbon Isotopes  in Coral
		4.2. B/Ca in Coral
		4.3. Ba/Ca in Coral
		4.4. V/Ca in Coral
		4.5. Cd/Ca in Coral
		4.6. Hg/Ca in Coral
		4.7. Pb/Ca in Coral
	Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
Chapter 12
The Ratio of Constitutive and Reparative Neurogenesis in Pallium of Juvenile Masu Salmon (Oncorhynchus masou)
	Abstract
	Introduction
	PCNA Localization in the Masu Salmon Pallial PVZ  in Norm and after a Mechanical Injury
	HuCD Localization in the Proliferative Zones  and Parenchyma of the Masu Salmon Pallial PVZ  in Norm and after a Mechanical Injury
	Conclusion
	Funding
	References
Chapter 13
Neural Stem Cells in the Cerebellum of Juvenile Masu Salmon (Oncorhynchus masou) after Mechanical Injury
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Comparative Aspects of Adult Neural Stem Cell Activity in Amphibians and Fish
	Proliferation and Migration of  Cells in Cerebellum of Fish
	GFAP, Doublecortine and Other Markers  of NSCs in Cerebellum of Fish
	Conclusion
	Funding
	References
Chapter 14
Catalase and Peroxidase in Black Sea Teleosts: Evolutionary, Systematical,  and Physiological Peculiarities
	Abstract
	1. Introduction
	2. Enzyme Activities and Fish Phylogenic Position
	3. Biological Peculiarities of Fish
		3.1. Early Development and Ageing
		3.2. Reproductive Strategy and Gender Peculiarities
		3.3. Diet and Food Deprivation
		3.4. Swimming Activity
	4. Abiotic Conditions
		4.1. Ecological Specificity of Abundance
		4.2. Salinity
		4.3. Pressure and Deep Sea Conditions
		4.4. Oxygen Availability
		4.5. Temperature
	5. Anthropogenic Impact
	Conclusion
	References
Chapter 15
The Teleost Retina as a Model  for Regenerative Medicine
	Abstract
	Adaptations of the Fish Eye
		The Fish Retina
		Fish Eye Development and Retinogenesis
		Stem Cell Niches in the Teleost Retina
			Healthy Retina
			Ciliary Marginal Zone (CMZ)
			Müller Glia
			Injured Retina: Regeneration
		Therapeutic Applications
	References
Chapter 16
Importance of Benthos in the Trophic Structure of the Ichthyofauna  of Los Frailes Reef,  Gulf of California, Mexico
	Abstract
	Introduction
		Composition of the Fish Community
		Abundance
		Classification of Species According to Their Relative Abundance
		Trophic Organization
		Functional Trophic Groups
		Diagram of Biomass Flow in the Reef
	Discussion
		Habitat Structural Complexity
		Fish Community Composition
		Trophic Organization of the Fish Community
		Effect of Benthic Structural Complexity on the Trophic Organization of  the Ichthyofauna of the Los Frailes Reef
	Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
Chapter 17
Marine Seaweeds of the Yucatan Peninsula: Diversity, Economic Importance  and Conservation
	Abstract
	Introduction
		Study Area
	Results
	Conservation
	Acknowledgments
	References
Chapter 18
Benthic Assemblages in South American Intertidal Rocky Shores:  Biodiversity, Services, and Threats
	Abstract
	Introduction
	The Intertidal Rocky Shores in South America:  Main Features and Associated Biodiversity
		The Caribbean
			Colombia
			Venezuela
			Trinidad and Tobago
		The Atlantic
			Brazil
				The Northeast: Ceara
				The Northeast: Sergipe
				The Northeast: Bahia
				The Southeast: Espírito Santo
				The Southeast: São Paulo
				The South: Paraná and Santa Catarina
			Uruguay
			Argentina
		The Pacific
			Colombia
			Ecuador
			Peru
			Chile
				Northern Chile: Iquique, Antofagasta and Copiapó
				Central-Northern Chile: Coquimbo, Los Vilos and San Antonio
				Central-Southern Chile: Concepción and Valdivia
				Southern Chile: Punta Arenas
	Uses and Threats to the Intertidal Rocky Shores  in South America
		The Caribbean
		The Atlantic
		The Pacific
	Gaps in Our Knowledge and Future Prospects
	Acknowledgments
	References
Chapter 19
Evaluation of Biomass and Reproductive Aspects of Invasive Algae Acanthophora spicifera in Punta Roca Caimancito  B.C.S. Mexico
	Abstract
	Introduction
		Ecological and Economic Impact of Marine Invasive Species
		Impact on Coral Reef
		Economic Importance
		Algae Introduced
		Acanthophora spicifera an Invasive Seaweed
		Description of Genus
		Description of the Species
		Geographical Distribution
		Floristic Records of Algae
		Study Area
	Materials and Methods
	Results
		Environmental Conditions
		General Features and Morphological of Punta Roca Acanthophora spicifera in Punta Roca Caimancito
		Percentage of Wet and Dry Weight
		Flora and Fauna of Acanthophora spicifera
	Discussion
	Conclusion
	Recommendation
	Annex
	References
Chapter 20
Environmental Impacts on Marine Benthic Communities in an Industrialized  Caribbean Island-Trinidad and Tobago
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Brief Review of Local Benthic Ecological Assessments
		Environmental Impacts on Macrobenthos in the Point Lisas Industrial Estate (PLIE) Coastal Area
	Materials and Methods
	General Results
	Discussion
	Acknowledgments
	References
Chapter 21
Prediction of Zostera marina Shoot Growth, Leaf Production, Leaf Area and Shoot Weight Using the Sheath Length
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Materials and Methods
	Results
	Discussion
	Acknowledgments
	References
Chapter 22
Distribution and Ecology of the Pacific Lobsterette Nephropsis occidentalis Faxon, 1893 (Crustacea, Decapoda, Astacidea), on the Continental Slope Off Western Mexico
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Material and Methods
		The Mexican Pacific
			Sampling of Biological Data
			Sampling of Environmental Data
			Sediment Sampling and Analysis
			Data Analyses
				Population Structure
				Environmental Variables
				Drivers of Population Structure
					Worldwide Distribution
	Results
		The Mexican Pacific
			Population Structure
				Environmental Variables
				Drivers of Population Structure
		Worldwide Distribution
	Discussion
		Mexican Pacific
			Population Structure
				Environmental Drivers of the Distribution of the Pacific Lobsterette
				Worldwide Patterns of Distribution
		Fishery Potential
	Outlook
	Acknowledgments
	References
Chapter 23
Sea Turtles as Ecosystem Indicators: Situation in Mexico
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Biodiversity of Sea Turtles in Mexico
	Threats to Sea Turtles
	Climate Change
		Pollution
		Pesticides
		Hydrocarbons
		Heavy Metals
		Sewage and Garbage
		Damage Caused by the Lights on Nesting Beaches
		Challenges
	References
Chapter 24
Similarity in Mollusk Assemblages Associated with Conspicuous Habitat Formers in Northwest México
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Study Site
		Field Sampling
			Laboratory Analyses
			Feeding Habits and Feeding Guilds
		Data Analysis
	Results
		Fauna Composition
		Similarity and Taxocenosis Structure
	Discussion
	Appendix
	References
Chapter 25
A Critique of the Environmental Impact Studies in México Based on Two Study Cases
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Dolphins, Mangroves and El Mogote
	Marina Azul and the Accumulative  and Synergic Impacts
	Conclusion
	References
Chapter 26
The Key Role of the Species Hediste diversicolor (Polychaeta, Nereididae)  in Estuarine Ecosystems
	Abstract
	1. Introduction
	2. Materials and Methods
	3. Population Dynamics of Hediste diversicolor
		Comparison with Other Estuaries
	4. Bioturbation Activity of Hediste diversicolor
		4.1. Bioturbation Activity of Hediste diversicolor in the Loire Estuary
		4.2. Bioturbation Activity of Hediste diversicolor in the  Nereis Park Experiment
	References
Chapter 27
Hox-Genes in the Ontogenesis  of Polychaetes
	Abstract
	1. Introduction
	2. Polychaetes: What Are They?
	3. Set and Structure of Hox-Clusters in Polychaetes
	4. Expression Patterns of Hox-Genes
		4.1. Chaetopterus variopedatus
		4.2. Capitella teleta
		4.3. Alitta virens and Platynereis dumerilii
	5. What Do Polychaetes Tell Us about Urbilateria?
	6. Hox-Genes and Larval Development
	References
Chapter 28
Dynamics of the Stress Protein Content in the White Sea Mussel Mytilus edulis L.  in Course of Salinity Adaptation
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Material and Methods
	Results
	Discussion
	Acknowledgment
	References
Chapter 29
Novel Fibrinogenolytic Metalloprotease from the Antarctic Scallop  (Adamussium colbecki)
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Conclusion
	References
Chapter 30
Investigation of Marine Biotoxins  and Human Toxicity
	Abstract
	Abbreviations
	Impact of the Harmful Algal Blooms  in the Marine Ecosystems
	Human Toxicity of the Marine Biotoxins
	Methods of Detection of the Marine Biotoxins
	The Monitoring Programs in Molluscs from the  Adriatic Sea, Italy
	Conclusion
	References
Chapter 31
Natural Products from Marine Sponges: Current Status and Future Potential  for Novel Drugs
	Abstract
	1. Introduction
	2. Marine Natural Product
	3. Milestones in Research on Marine Natural Products
	4. Current Marine Pharmaceutical Pipeline
	5. Sponges (Porifera) as a Source of Drug Treasure Trove
	6. Marine Sponges and Natural Chemical Components
	7. Pharmacological Potency of Marine Sponges
		7.1. Anti-Oxidant Activity
		7.2. Anti-Bacterial Activity
		7.3. Anti-Fungal Activity
		7.4. Anti-Viral Activity
		7.5. Anti-Malarial Activity
		7.6. Marine Invertebrates with Anti-Inflammatory Properties
		7.7. Anti-Coagulating Activity
		7.8. Marine Sponges with Anti-Tumour Properties
			Cytarabine
			Halichondrin B
			Hemiasterlins
			Discodermolide
			Spongistatin 1
	8. Future Prospects of Sponge-Derived Natural Products  in Drug Discovery
	Conclusion
	References
Chapter 32
Black Vultures (Coragyps atratus) Foraging on Olive Ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea)  Sea Turtle Eggs and Hatchlings
	Abstract
	Methods
	Results
	Discussion
	Acknowledgments
	References
Chapter 33
Mitigation Strategies for the Reduction of Sea Turtle Bycatch in the Mediterranean Bottom Trawl Fisheries
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Methods
		Study Area
		Assessment of Turtle-Trawl Interaction
			Telemetry Data
			VMS Data
			Interaction Index
		Flexible Turtle Excluder Device (TED)
			Trawl Gear and TED Specifications
			Study of Gear and TED Performance
			Catch Analysis
	Results
		Identification of Turtle-Trawl Interaction
		Flexible Turtle Excluder Device (TED) Performance
			Gear Behaviour
			Catch Efficiency
	Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
Chapter 34
Spatial-Temporal Distribution of Kemp's Ridley Turtles (Lepidochelys kempi) and  Green Turtles (Chelonia mydas) Nests in a Beach of the North of Veracruz, Mexico
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Methods
		Data Recording
		Nests Distribution per Area
		Nests Distribution per Site
	Results
		Nests Number per Month
		Spatial-Temporal Distribution of Nests
		Nest Distribution per Zone (A, B and C)
		Nests Distribution per Site
	Discussion
	Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
Chapter 35
Marine Turtles:  Conservation Strategies  and Future Research
	Abstract
	1. Introduction
	2. Conservation Strategies and Future Research  on Reproductive Areas
		2.1. Population Genetic Structure Phylogeographic Relationships
		2.2. Natal Homing
		2.3. Temperature Dependent Sex Determination
		2.4. Environmental Conditions Affecting Embryonic Development
	3. Conservation Strategies and Future Research  on Oceanic Phases
		3.1. Migratory Routes and Movements
		3.2. Foraging Grounds
	Conclusion
	References
Chapter 36
Spirorchiidiosis and Other Forms  of Parasitosis in Sea Turtles  on the Coast of Brazil
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Methods
		The Family Spirorchiidae
		Spirorchiidiosis in Sea Turtles on the Coast of Brazil
		Spirorchiidiosis in Chelonia mydas
		Spirorchiidiosis in Eretmochelys imbricata
		Spirorchiidiosis in Lepidochelys olivacea
		Parasites in Sea Turtles on the Coast of Brazil
		Parasites in Chelonia mydas
		Helminths Reported in Green Sea Turtles on the Coast of Brazil
		Parasites in Eretmochelys imbricata
		Helminths Reported for the Hawksbill Sea Turtle along the Coast of Brazil
		Parasites of Caretta caretta
		Helminths Reported in the Loggerhead Sea Turtle along the Coast of Brazil
		Parasites of Dermochelys coriacea
		Parasites of Lepidochelys olivacea
		Challenges for the Future
	Acknowledgments
	References
	Biographical Sketches
Chapter 37
Effect of Clays on Removal of Okadaic Acid from Seawater
	Abstract
	1. Introduction
	2. Materials and Methods
		2.1. Selection of Clays
		2.2. Seawater Sampling
		2.3. Clay Suspensions Preparation
		2.4. Okadaic Acid Analysis
	3. Results
	4. Discussion
	Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
Chapter 38
Helminth Diversity of Cetaceans:  An Update
	Abstract
	Parasitism in Cetaceans
	Helminths of Cetaceans
	Acknowledgments
	References
Chapter 39
Influenza Viruses: A Threat to Marine Mammals Populations
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Influenza Outbreaks in Seal and Whale Populations
	Genetic Background of Marine Mammals Influenza Viruses
	Marine Mammals and Public Health
	Conclusion
	References
Chapter 40
Ecological Interdependence in Marine Habitats: Bio-Economic Management  of a Spanish Mixed Fishery
	Abstract
	Introduction
	The European Hake and Blue Whiting  Mixed Fishery
	An Applied Management Model
	Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
	Biographical Sketches
Chapter 41
Marine Sponge Compounds with  Anti-Inflammatory Activity in 2012–2016;  and Their Mechanism of Action
	Abstract
	1. Introduction
	2. Marine Sponge’s Anti-Inflammatory Activity
	3. Chemical Structures of Compounds Isolated and Their Mechanism of Action
	4. Anti-Inflammatory Activities of Bacteria Associated with Marine Sponges
	5. Synthetic Compounds from the Marine Sponge Compounds Lead
	Conclusion
	References
Chapter 42
Trophic Ecology of the Shortfin Mako Isurus oxyrinchus (Lamniformes: Lamnidae)  in the Eastern Pacific Ocean
	Abstract
	1. Introduction
	2. Methods and Statistical Analyses Applied in the Trophic Ecology of Isurus oxyrinchus
		2.1. Stomach Content Analysis Applied to the Trophic Ecology of  Isurus oxyrinchus
			2.1.1. Prey Identification
			2.1.2. Cumulative Prey Curves
			2.1.3. Diet Analysis
			2.1.4. Trophic Overlap
			2.1.5. Niche Breadth and Trophic Level
			2.1.6. Feeding Strategy
			2.1.7. Consumption by Sharks of Key Prey Species
		2.2. Stable Isotopic Analysis
			2.2.1. Sampling and Isotopic Analysis
			2.2.2. Trophic Level Based on Isotope Values
		2.3. Trophic Ecology of Isurus oxyrinchus in the Eastern Pacific
			2.3.1. Feeding Habits of Isurus oxyrinchus
			2.3.2. Stable Isotopic Analysis of Isurus oxyrinchus
	3. Feeding Description of Isurus oxyrinchus  in the Eastern Pacific Ocean
		3.1. Results of Stomach Content Analysis
			3.1.1. Central Area “Ecuadorian Pacific”
				General Description of I. oxyrinchus Caught in the Central Area
				Prey Identification
			3.1.2. Northern and Southern Pacific Areas
				Prey Identification
			3.1.3. Trophic Overlap
			3.1.4. Niche Breadth and Trophic Level
			3.1.5. Feeding Strategy
			3.1.6. Consumption of Fish and Squid by Isurus oxyrinchus
		3.2. Results of Stable Isotope Analysis
	4. Discussion
		4.1. Feeding Habits in the Eastern Pacific Ocean
		4.2. Variation in Diet in the Three Areas of the Eastern Pacific Ocean
		4.3. Niche Breadth and Trophic Level
		4.4. Feeding Strategy
		4.5. Consumption of Fish and Squids by Isurus oxyrinchus
		4.6. Stable Isotopic Analysis of Isurus oxyrinchus
	Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
Chapter 43
Biomarker Response in Black Sea Scorpion Fish Scorpaena porcus to Anthropogenic Impact
	Abstract
	1. Introduction
	2. Materials and Methods
		2.1. Materials
		2.2. Biochemical Assays
			Antioxidant Enzyme Activities
			Aminotransferases Activity
			Cholinesterase (ChE) Activity
			Oxidized Proteins (OP) Concentration
			TBARS Level
			Chemiluminescence Analysis
			Total Soluble Protein Concentration
		2.3. Statistical Analysis
	3. Results
		3.1. Ecological Characteristics of Tested Sites
		3.2. Biomarkers Response
			Antioxidant Enzyme Activity
			Cholinesterase Activity
			Aminotransferase Activity
			TBARS Concentration
			Chemiluminescence Level
			Oxidized Proteins (OP) Concentration
	4. Discussion
	Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
Chapter 44
Aquatic Invasive Species: Additional Steps Could Help Measure Federal Progress  in Achieving Strategic Goals*
	Why GAO Did This Study
	What GAO Recommends
	What GAO Found
	Abbreviations
	Background
	Task Force Member Agencies Estimated Expending an Average of about $260 Million Annually to Address Aquatic Invasive Species in Fiscal Years 2012 through 2014
	Task Force Member Agencies Conducted a Wide Range  of Activities and Identified Several Challenges  in Addressing Aquatic Invasive Species
		Prevention
		Early Detection and Rapid Response
		Control and Management
		Restoration
		Research
		Education and Public Awareness
		Leadership and International Cooperation
	The Task Force Has Not Taken Key Steps to Measure Progress in Achieving Its Strategic Goals
	Conclusion
	Recommendation for Executive Action
	Agency Comments and Our Evaluation
	Appendix I: Objectives, Scope, and Methodology
	Appendix II: Examples of Aquatic Invasive Species and Their Reported Presence by State, and Common Pathways
	Appendix III: Aquatic Invasive Species Activities Conducted by Task Force Member Agencies
	End Notes
		End Notes for Appendix I
Chapter 45
Aquatic Nuisance Species Task Force Strategic Plan (2013-2017)(
	Executive Summary
	Introduction
		Environmental Harm
		Economic Harm
		Harm to Human Health
		ANS - What Can Be Done?
			Future Challenges
	Structure of the Aquatic Nuisance Species Task Force
		Federal and Ex-Officio Members
		ANSTF Regional Panels
		ANSTF Committees
		ANSTF Strategic Plan
		ANSTF Operational Plan
	Coordination with Other Federal and State Invasive Species Management Plans
	Conclusion
		Goal 1: Coordination - Maximize the Organizational Effectiveness of the Aquatic Nuisance Species Task Force
			Objective 1.1: Strengthen the Coordination Capacity of the ANSTF
			Objective 1.2: Evaluate the Ability of Statutory Authorities, Regulations, and Programs Necessary to Implement ANSTF Goals and Objectives
			Objective 1.3: Facilitate the Development and Continued Effectiveness of State and Interstate ANS Management Plans
			Objective 1.4: Coordinate the Development and Implementation of ANSTF- Approved Species Control and Management Plans and Pathway Management Plans
			Objective 1.5: Cooperate with Nations That Have Neighboring Waters and Shared Pathways with the United States to Prevent, Detect, and Control ANS
		Goal 2: Prevention - Develop Strategies to Identify and Prevent the Establishment of New and Slow the Spread of Existing ANS in the Waters  of the United States
			Objective 2.1: Take Steps to Interdict Specific Pathways by Developing and Implementing Guidance and Appropriate Measures
			Objective 2.2: Facilitate Use of Science-Based Risk Assessment and Screening Procedures to Assess and Prioritize Pathways for the Introduction of ANS or Potential Species of Concern
			Objective 2.3: Expand Training and Use of the Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) Program into Work Conducted by Natural Resource Managers
		Goal 3: Early Detection and Rapid Response - Identify and Respond to Aquatic Nuisance Species within a Timely Manner Following Introduction  in Order to Prevent Their Establishment and/or Spread
			Objective 3.1: Facilitate Surveys and Monitoring to Detect ANS
			Objective 3.2: Make Taxonomic and Ecological Information and Expertise Readily Available
			Objective 3.3: Increase Public and Industry Involvement in Early Detection and Rapid Response Programs
			Objective 3.4: Facilitate Development of Rapid Response Contingency Plans
			Objective 3.5: Build Capacity to Respond Rapidly to Invasions
		Goal 4: Control and Management - Control Established Aquatic Nuisance Species When Feasible and When the Benefits of Managing the Established Species Outweigh the Costs of Removing Them with Respect to Harm to the Environment, the Economy, and Public ...
			Objective 4.1: Support and Evaluate ANSTF-Approved Control and Management Plans
			Objective 4.2: Increase Invasive Species Training for Natural Resource Managers and Leverage Participation
			Objective 4.3: Evaluate the Benefits and Risks Associated with the Commercial Harvest of ANS as a Means of Control or Eradication
			Objective 4.4: Encourage an Integrated Pest Management (IPM)25 Approach to Manage Existing ANS Populations
		Goal 5: Restoration – Protect and Rehabilitate Native Species and Ecosystems by Conducting Habitat Restoration Efforts on Multiple Scales
			Objective 5.1: Restore Impacted Ecosystems
			Objective 5.2: Address and Provide Technical Assistance for Invasive Species Management before, during, and after Habitat Restoration Projects
		Goal 6: Education and Outreach - Increase Awareness Concerning  the Threats of Aquatic Nuisance Species, Emphasizing the Impacts,  Importance of Prevention and Containment, and Recommendations  for Appropriate Domestic and International Actions
			Objective 6.1: Increase Understanding Among the General Public of the Problems and Impacts Associated with ANS and Actions That Can Be Taken to Prevent and Control ANS in Waters of the United States
			Objective 6.2: Disseminate ANS Outreach and Technical Guidance Materials to  Target Audiences
			Objective 6.3: Promote the Use of Guidance Documents, Best Management Practices (Bmps)26, and Other Outreach Materials Related to ANS
			Objective 6.4: Promote Awareness of the ANSTF and Its Activities and Provide Educational Briefings on ANS Threats and Solutions and to Legislators and Other Decision Makers
		Goal 7: Research - Facilitate Research to Address Environmental,  Economic, and Human Health Risks and Impacts Associated with  Aquatic Nuisance Species
			Objective 7.1: Develop and Maintain a List of ANS Research Priorities; Communicate This List to the Scientific Community
			Objective 7.2: Develop and Maintain Guidance Documents, Protocols, and Best Management Practices (BMPs) Related to ANS
			Objective 7.3: Track the Progress of Research Activities Funded or Prioritized by  the ANSTF
			Objective 7.4: Support Development of Socio-Economic Research and Methods to Quantify the Economic Impact of ANS
			Objective 7.5: Support Research on Interdiction Methods for Specific Pathways of ANS30
			Objective 7.6: Support Efforts to Identify Gaps and Expand Research Relevant to Control and Eradication Measures to Address ANS That Have Become Established in Waters of the United States
			Objective 7.7: Encourage Research to Develop Species Invasion-Risk Forecast Tools
			Objective 7.8: Support Existing Databases and Global Database Networks So National and Worldwide Decision-Support Information for Invasive Species Management Is Accessible, Transparent, and Accurate
		Goal 8: Funding - Coordinate Federal Agency Budgets to Support the Aquatic Nuisance Species Task Force’s Priorities and Establish a  Clear Process That Links State and Regional Needs in Their Areas  of Responsibility
			Objective 8.1: Secure Dedicated, Long-Term Funding for the ANSTF Strategic Plan Actions
			Objective 8.2: Optimize Use of Current Funding for ANS Activities by Engaging Potential Resources and Programs Within Federal Agencies and Additional Partners
			Objective 8.3: Develop a List of ANS Funding Priorities
	Appendix 1: List of Acronyms
	End Notes
Chapter 46
A New Late Triassic (Warepan: Middle to Late Norian) Orthoconic Nautiloid from New Zealand and New Caledonia
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Systematics
		Genus Stipamonotis Grant-Mackie, n. gen.
			Type
			Derivation of Name
			Diagnosis
			Comments
		Stipamonotis herangiae Grant-Mackie, n. sp. (Figure 4)
			Derivation of Name
			Holotype
			Paratypes
			Additional Material
			Diagnosis
			Description
			Comments
			Associated Biota
			Age
	Acknowledgments
	Appendix 1
	References
Chapter 47
Combined Effects of Ocean Acidification and Salinity on Foraging Behaviour of Intertidal Scavenging Gastropod Nassarius festivus
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Materials and Methods
		Study Organisms
		Experimental Setup
		Food Detection Experiment
	Statistical Analysis
	Results
		Food Detection Time
		Percentage of Individuals Engaged in Foraging
	Discussion
	References
Chapter 48
Oxidative Effects in Aquatic Organisms Exposed to Lipophilic Marine Biotoxins
	Oxidative Stress and Antioxidant Response
	Harmful Algal Blooms and Lipophilic Marine Biotoxins
	Okadaic Acid-Group (OA-Group)
	Yessotoxins-Group (YTX-Group)
	Pectenotoxins-Group (PTX-Group)
	Azaspiracids-Group (AZA-Group)
	Levels of Oxidative Stress in Marine Organisms Exposed  to Lipophilic Marine Biotoxins
	Conclusion
	Acknowledgment
	References
Chapter 49
The Jumbo Flying Squid  (Dosidicus gigas) off of Costa Rica
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Results
		1. Fishery
			1.1. Catch and Its Relationship with Environmental Factors
			1.2. Fishing Technology
		2. Hard Structure
			2.1. Statolith
			2.2. Beak
			2.3. Gladius
		3. Biology
			3.1. Size, Age and Hatching Time
			3.2. The Relationship between ML and BW
			3.3. Maturity
			3.4. Growth and Growth Rates
			3.5. Diet
	References
Chapter 50
Spatial Distribution and Species Composition of Zooplankton in the Eastern Tropical Pacific Ocean Waters Off Costa Rica
	Abstract
	1. Introduction
	2. Results
		2.1. Total Biomass and Abundance
		2.2. Composition of Zooplankton
		2.3. Distribution and Frequency of Zooplankton
	Appendix: Zooplankton Species List
	References
Chapter 51
Turbot Aquaculture in Spain: An Overview
	Abstract
	1. Introduction
	2. Biology and Habitat of the Turbot
	3. Turbot Farming
	4. Spanish Research on Turbot Aquaculture
		4.1. Farming Research
		4.2. Vaccine Research
		4.3. Genetic Research
	5. The Spanish Turbot Industry
	6. Turbot Production in Spain
		6.1. Production Volume
		6.2. Production Value
		6.3. Markets for Turbo Production
	7. Future Outlook and Challenges for  Spanish Turbot Farming
	Acknowledgments
	References
Chapter 52
The Gregarious Behavior of Marine Fish  and Their Relation to Fishing
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Advantages and Disadvantages of Grouping Behavior
		Advantages
		Disadvantages
	Grouping’s Structure
	Influence of the Behavior of Grouping Type  in the Development of Fishing Activity
	Industrial Fisheries of Shoals and Schools
	Pelagic Fisheries with Purse Seine Net
	Pelagic Fisheries with Midwater Trawl Net
	Pelagic Fisheries with Set Nets
	References
Chapter 53
The Interaction of Aquatic Organisms (Mytilus sp.) with Harmful Algal Blooms: Composition, Distribution and Metabolism  of Lipophilic Marine Biotoxins  in the Austral Pacific Fjords
	Abstract
	1. Introduction
	2. Lipophilic Marine Biotoxins
		2.1. Okadaic Acid Group
		2.2. Yessotoxins Group
		2.3. Pectenotoxins Group
		2.4. Azaspiracid Toxins Group
	3. Composition and Biotransformation of Lipophilic Marine Biotoxins in Mussels
	4. Impact of Lipophilic Marine Biotoxins on Aquaculture Development in the South Pacific Fjords
	Conclusion
	Acknowledgment
	References
Chapter 54
The Effect of the Nitrogen-Source Modification and the Addition of CO2  on the Growth and Composition of Lipids  in Nannochlorospis Sp.
	Abstract
	1. Introduction
		1.1. Microalgae
		1.2. Eustigmatophyceae
		1.3. Nannochloropsis
	2. Effect of Nitrogen-Source Modification and CO2 Addition on Nannochloropsis sp.
		2.1. Effect of CO2 Addition on Nannochloropsis Cultures
		2.2. Effect of the Nitrogen Source on Nannochloropsis Cultures
		2.3. Effect of Nitrogen-Source Modification and CO2 Addition on the Content and Profile of Lipids
			2.3.1. Fatty Acid Profile
	Conclusion
	References
Chapter 55
Potential of Nannochloropsis  in Beta Glucan Production
	Abstract
	1. Introduction
		1.1. Carbohydrate Metabolism in Microalgae
		1.2. Factors and Strategies to Improve βG Production from Nannochloropsis
			Metabolis Type
			Temperature
			Osmotic Stress
			Lighting Type and Intensity
			Nutrient Limitation
			Supply Inorganic Carbon
			Production of βG in Two-Stage Process
		1.3. Molecular Structure and Capacity as Immunostimulants of βG
		1.4. Characterization of Microalgal βG
	2. Materials and Methods
		2.1. Microalgae Strain and Cultures
		2.2. Determination of Dry Weight and Organic and Inorganic Content
		2.3. Total Carbohydrates Determination
		2.4. Enzymatic Quantification of Beta Glucans
		2.5. Volumetric Productivity of Beta Glucans
		2.6. Statistical Analysis
	3. Results
		3.1. Growth Curve
		3.2. Volumetric Production of Biomass and Carbohydrates Accumulation
		3.3. Cellular and Volumetric Productivity of Beta Glucans
	4. Discussion
	Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
Chapter 56
Pulsed Electric Field (PEF) Assisted Protein Extraction from Nannochloropsis
	Abstract
	1. Introduction
	2. Basic Technological Description of Electropulsation
	3. A Biophysical Description
		3.1. An Electric Field Has Physical Effects
			3.1.1. Electrochemistry at the Electrodes (pH, Corrosion)
			3.1.2. Electrophoresis in the Suspension
			3.1.3. Electrophoresis in the Cell Membrane
			3.1.4. Stretching of the Cell
			3.1.5. Induction of Acoustic Shock Waves
		3.2. The External Field Induces Membrane Potential Difference Modulation
		3.3. Electropermeabilization
	4. Materials
		4.1. Analytical Methods
			4.1.1. Analysis of Ionic Components
			4.1.2. Analysis of Proteins
		4.2. Physical Techniques of Cell Disruption
			4.2.1. LFLP (Low Field Long Pulse)
			4.2.2. HFSP (High Field Short Pulse)
			4.2.3. HVED (High Voltage Electrical Discharge)
	5. Results
		5.1. LFLP
			5.1.1. Microalgae Electropermeabilization
			5.1.2. Protein Extraction from N. salina
		5.2. HFSP and HVED Treatments
			5.2.1. Microalgae Electropermeabilization
			5.2.2. Microscopic Observations
			5.2.3. Protein Extraction
	Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
Chapter 57
Recent Advances in the Utilization  of Nannochloropsis Biomass for Commodity Chemicals, Feeds, High Value Products, Biofuels, Cosmetics, Fertilizers,  and Materials Production
	Abstract
	1. Introduction
	2. Commodity Chemicals Production from Nannochloropsis
		2.1. Lipids Production via Solvent Extraction
		2.2. Biocrude Production via Thermal Process
		2.3. Sugars Production via Enzymatic and Acidic Hydrolysis
		2.4. Lactic Acid Production via Fermentation
		2.5. Protein Isolation from Defatted Nannochloropsis sp. Biomass
	3. Aquaculture and Animal Feeds Production  from Nannochloropsis
		3.1. Aquaculture Feed Production from Nannochloropsis
		3.2. Animal Feed Production from Nannochloropsis
	4. High Value Products Production from Nannochloropsis
		4.1. Production of Eicosapentaenoic Acid (EPA) from Nannochloropsis
		4.2. Production of Pigments from Nannochloropsis
	5. Biofuels Production from Nannochloropsis
		5.1. Biodiesel Production from Nannochloropsis
		5.2. Biodiesel Production from Nannochloropsis via Chemical Heterogeneous Catalysis
		5.3. Biodiesel Production from Nannochloropsis via  Chemical Homogeneous Catalysis
		5.4. Biodiesel Production from Nannochloropsis via Enzymatic Catalysis
		5.5. Biodiesel Production from Nannochloropsis via Supercritical CO2
		5.6. BioH2 Production from Nannochloropsis
	6. Cosmeceuticals Production from Nannochloropsis
	7. Solid Biofertilizers Production from Nannochloropsis
	8. Materials Production from Nannochloropsis
	9. Challenges and Future Perspectives of Nannochloropsis for Biorefinery
	Acknowledgment
	References
Chapter 58
Genetic Improvement of Microalgae Nannochloropsis Species
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Genetic Modification Approaches  in Nannochloropsis Species
		Particle Bombardment
		Electroporation
		Agrobacterium tumefaciens-Mediated Genetic Transformation
		Mutagenesis
	Selection Markers Applied to the Transformation
		Selective Marker of Antibiotic-Resistant and Reporter Genes
		GUS and GFP Reporter Genes Applied to Nannochloropsis Species
	Expression of Foreign Proteins Applied for Aquaculture and Lipid Biosynthesis
	Reverse Genetic Approaches of Silencing, Knockout  and Knockdown in Nannochloropsis Species
		Homologous Recombination
		CRISPR/Cas9 System
		RNA Interference (RNAi)-Mediated Gene Silencing
	Biosynthesis Mutation in Nannochloropsis
		Mutation to Enhance Lipid Productivity and Change Lipid Content
		Mutation to Improve Pigment Productivity
		Mutation to Increase Photosynthesis Efficiency and Biomass Productivity
	Future Perspectives
		The Expression Level of Foreign Protein in Chloroplast
		Promoter Used in Gene Construct for Transformation
		Codon Usage
		Further Improvement of Selective Marker System
	References
	Biographical Sketches
Chapter 59
Nannochloropsis oculata and Integrated Biorefinery Based on Palm Oil Milling
	Abstract
	1. Introduction
	2. Factors Affecting Nannochloropsis oculata Cultivation
		2.1. Effects of pH, Salinity and Light Intensity
		2.2. Effects of Macro and Micronutrients
		2.3. Effects of Reactor Configuration
	3. Different Types of Biorefinery
		3.1. Oil Recovery Biorefinery
		3.2. Biogas Biorefinery
		3.3. Sugar Feedstock Biorefinery
		3.4. Thermo-Chemical Biorefinery
	4. Palm Oil Mill Biorefinery
		4.1. Algal Biomass Co-Utilization
		4.2. Cellulose Extraction and the Biocomposite Materials
	5. Bioproducts from Algal Feedstock
	6. Cost-Estimation Analyses
	Conclusion
	References
Chapter 60
Trends in Copepod Studies
	Abstract
	1. Introduction
	2. Trends in Copepod Studies – Summary of Contributions
	Acknowledgments
	References
Chapter 61
Using the Continuous Plankton Recorder  to Study the Distribution and Ecology  of Marine Pelagic Copepods
	Abstract
	1. Introduction
		1.1. Why Use a CPR and CPR Methodology?
		1.2. Copepod Taxa Recorded by the Survey
	2. What Can CPR Data Be Used for?
		2.1. Mapping Copepod Biogeography
		2.2. Disentangling Short-Term and Rhythmic Variations from  Long-Term Trends
		2.3. Monitoring Northward Shifts and Range Expansions
		2.4. Observing Phenological Changes
		2.5. Detecting Non-Native Species
		2.6. CPR Copepod Data and Policy
	3. Future of the CPR Survey
		3.1. Sample Archive and Molecular Methods
		3.2. Copepods and Human Health
		3.3. Instrumentation
	Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
Chapter 62
Global Distribution of Tropical  and Subtropical Copepods
	Abstract
	1. Introduction
	2. Materials and Methods
	3. Results
		3.1. Abundance and Distribution
		3.2. Copepod Community Structure
	4. Discussion
	Acknowledgments
	References
Chapter 63
Biogeographical Distribution and Ecology of the Planktonic Copepod Oithona davisae: Rapid Invasion in Lakes Faro and Ganzirri (Central Mediterranean Sea)
	Abstract
	1. Introduction
	2. Distribution and Ecology of Oithona davisae
		2.1. Biogeographic Distribution
		2.2. Habitat Characteristics
		2.3. Ecology
		2.4. Dispersal
	3. Oithona davisae in the Central Mediterranean Sea  (Lakes Faro and Ganzirri, Sicily, Italy)
		3.1. Study Area
		3.2. Materials and Methods
		3.3. Results
			3.3.1. Seasonal Variations of Environmental Factors
			3.3.2. Seasonal Variations in Abundance of Oithona davisae
	Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
Chapter 64
Impact of the Invasive Species Acartia tonsa on the Distribution of Autochthonous Acartiidae Species in Estuaries of  the Bay of Biscay
	Abstract
	1. Introduction
	2. Material and Methods
		2.1. Study Area
			2.1.1. Estuary of Bilbao
			2.1.2. Estuary of Urdaibai
		2.2. Data Source
		2.3. Data Treatment
	3. Results
		3.1. Environmental Conditions
		3.2. Spatial and Temporal Distribution of Acartiidae Species
		3.3. Species Segregation in Environmental Gradients
		3.4. Niche Breadth and Overlap
	Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
Chapter 65
Can Changes in the Distribution of Two Congeneric Copepods (Acartia clausi vs. Acartia tonsa) Constitute a Sign of Recovery for the Anthropized Berre Lagoon  (France, Mediterranean Sea)?
	Abstract
	1. Introduction
	2. Methods
		2.1. Study Site and Sampling Strategy
		2.2. Environmental Parameters
		2.3. Metazooplankton Community
		2.4. Data Analysis
	3. Results
		3.1. Environmental Parameters
		3.2. Spatiotemporal Variations of Zooplankton Community and  Acartia Populations
		3.3. Effects of Environmental Factors on Acartia Distribution
	Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
Chapter 66
The Impact of Conspicuous Environmental Changes on the Spatial and Temporal Dynamics of Acartia tonsa and Acartia clausi: A Decadal Study in a Temperate Estuary (Mondego, Portugal)
	Abstract
	1. Introduction
	2. Methods
		2.1. Study Area
		2.2. Environmental and Biological Data
		2.3. Statistical Analysis
	3. Results
		3.1. Variabilty of Environmental Parameters and Acartia Abundance
		3.2. Acartia Variability in Relation to Environmental Parameters
			3.2.1. CUSUM Analysis of Time-Series
			3.2.2. Interstructure Analysis of the Years
			3.2.3. Compromise Analysis
			3.2.4. Trajectories Analysis
	Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
Chapter 67
Temperature, Salinity and Oxygen Concentration in Life Cycle Traits  of the Black Sea Copepods
	Abstract
	1. Introduction
	2. Salinity Tolerance of the Black Sea Species and Their Congeneric Populations from the Marmara and Ionian Seas
		2.1. Salinity Tolerance in Calanipeda aquaedulcis and Arctodiaptomus salinus
		2.2. Salinity Tolerance of Native Acartia clausi and Alien Acartia tonsa
		2.3. Salinity Tolerance of the Copepods from the Genus Oithona
		2.4. Salinity Tolerance of Calanus helgolandicus
		2.5. Types of Osmotic Response in the Black Sea Copepods
		2.6. Copepod Egg Salinity Tolerance
		2.7. Effect of Salinity on Copepod Respiration Rate
	3. Effect of Temperature
		3.1. Effect of Temperature on Respiration Rate
		3.2. Effect of Temperature on Moving Activity
		3.3. Temperature Impact on the Life Cycle and Respiration Rate of the Black Sea Native and Alien Species
	4. Tolerance of the Black Sea Copepods to Oxygen Deficiency Stress
		4.1. Effect of Oxygen Concentration on Energy Metabolism of the Migrating and Diapausing Calanus helgolandicus
		4.2. Effect of Oxygen Concentration on Respiration Rate of Calanipeda aquaedulcis and Arctodiaptomus salinus
		4.3. Energy Benefits of the Development of Calanus helgolandicus  in the Black Sea Environment
	Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
Chapter 68
The Biology of Myelin in Calanoid Copepods
	Abstract
	1. Introduction
	2. Structure and Function of Copepod Myelin
		2.1. Copepod Myelin is an Axonal Sheath Composed of Multiple Concentric Layers of Membrane
		2.2. Copepod Myelin is Produced by Nerve Cells, Not Glia
		2.3. Myelin Functions by Electrically Insulating Axons
	3. Copepod Myelin is Confined to More Recently  Evolved Superfamilies
	4. Body Size Does Not Correlate with Myelination
	5. Myelinate Copepods Have Shorter Reaction Times  Than Amyelinates
	6. Myelinates Localize Sudden Hydrodynamic Disturbances Better Than Amyelinates
	7. Do Milliseconds Matter?
	8. Ecology of Myelin
		8.1. Myelinates Dominate over Amyelinates in Marine Environments  with High Visibility
		8.2. Myelin is Correlated with Niche Separation between Co-Occurring Myelinate and Amyelinate Species
	9. Invasion of the Pelagic Environment  and Evolution of Myelin
	Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
Chapter 69
Evasion from Predation:  Understanding Copepod Escape Behavior  in Relation to Predator Capture Strategies
	Abstract
	1. Introduction
	2. Detection of Predators
	3. Generation of an Escape Jump
	4. Non-Visual Predators
	5. Visual Predators
	6. Effect of Water Motion
	7. Effect of Temperature and Viscosity
	Conclusion
	Funding
	References
Chapter 70
Chemosensation and a Potential Neuronal Mechanism of Ratio Detection in a Copepod
	Abstract
	Abbreviations
	1. Introduction
	2. Observations of Temora longicornis
	3. The Spiking Neuron Model for Ratio Detection
	4. Synaptic Weight Selection
	5. Results
	Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
Chapter 71
Planktonic Calanoids Embark  into the “Omics Era”
	Abstract
	1. Introduction
	2. Techniques
		2.1. RT-qPCR
		2.2. Microarray
		2.3. EST and SSH
		2.4. RNA-Seq and De Novo Assembly of Transcriptomes
	3. The Target Species
	4. Gene Expression Approach
		4.1. RT-qPCR-Based Works
		4.2. Microarrays and EST Libraries
		4.3. RNA-Seq
	5. Metabolomics and Proteomics
	6. Genome Up-Dates
	Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
Chapter 72
Macroalgae for Functional Feed Development: Applications in Aquaculture, Ruminant and Swine Feed Industries
	Abstract
	1. Introduction
	2. Macroalgae as Source of Macro-Nutrients
		2.1. Macroalgal Proteins
		2.2. Macroalgal Polysaccharides
		2.3. Macroalgal Fatty Acids
	3. Macroalgae as Source of Micro-Nutrients
		3.1. Minerals
		3.2. Pigments
	4. Macroalgae as Functional Feed
		4.1. Aquaculture Nutrition
		4.2. Ruminant Nutrition
		4.3. Swine Nutrition
	5. Future Prospects
	References
Chapter 73
Environmental Impacts of Seaweed  Co-Culture on Coastal Fisheries
	Abstract
	1. Coastal Fisheries
		1.1. Current Situation and Problems
			1.1.1. Global Situation
			1.1.2. Domestic Situation
			1.1.3. Problems Facing Coastal Fisheries
				1.1.3.1. Environmental Impact
				1.1.3.2. Diseases
				1.1.3.3. Fish Production
				1.1.3.4. Social Concerns
				1.1.3.5. Geographical Effects
		1.2. Development Schemes
			1.2.1. Existing Schemes
				1.2.1.1. Environmental Monitoring
				1.2.1.2. Feed Management
				1.2.1.3. Limitations
				1.2.1.4. Farming Site Management
			1.2.2. Integrated Multitrophic Aquaculture
			1.2.3. Use of Lugworm
	2. Seaweeds
		2.1. Diversity
			2.1.1. Current State in Korea
			2.1.2. Domestic Uses
		2.2. Seaweed Culture
			2.2.1. Positive Effects
				2.2.1.1. Physical Aspects
				2.2.1.2. Ecological Aspects
			2.2.2. Negative Effects
				2.2.2.1. Physical Aspects
				2.2.2.2. Ecological Aspects
		2.3. Seaweed Co-Culture
			2.3.1. Role of IMTA
			2.3.2. Association with Lugworm
		2.4. Schemes for Diverse Uses
			2.4.1. Acquisition of Useful Microbes from the Lugworm viscera
			2.4.2. Biodegradation of Seaweeds
			2.4.3. Others
	Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
Chapter 74
Sustainable Production of Seaweed  in Malaysia: A Review of Policies  and Future Prospects
	Abstract
	1. Introduction
		1.1. Seaweed Cultivation in Malaysia: An Overview
	2. The Interventions of Malaysian Government Agencies  in Seaweed Production
		2.1. Mini Estate System (MES) and Cluster System (CS) as a New Approach in Seaweed Cultivation in Sabah, East Malaysia
	3. Seaweed Socio-Economic Benefits  to Malaysia’s Development
	4. The Potential Usage of Seaweed in Business  Ventures or Commercialisation
	5. Prospect of Seaweed Industry and Way Forward
	Conclusion
	References
	Biographical Sketches
Chapter 75
The Identification of Macroalgae and the Assessment of Intertidal Rocky Shores’ Ecological Statuses in the Central Western Coast of Continental Portugal
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Seashores of the Western Coast of Portugal (Peniche)
	Survey of the Phycological Flora
	Macroalgal Diversity and Community Structure
	Assessment of the Ecological Status  of Coastal Water Bodies
	Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	Annex I. Macroalgae Biodiversity in Images  and Their Characteristics
		Chlorophyta – Green Algae
		Ochrophyta (Phaeophyceae) – Brown Algae
		Rodophyta – Red Algae
	References
Chapter 76
Potential Applications of Ulva rigida  for Biofuel and Biochemical Production
	Abstract
	Introduction
		Seaweeds as Biofuel Feedstock
		Unconventional Strategies for the Farming and Conversion of Ulva rigida to Bioethanol
		Continuous-Flow Solar-Energy-Driven SSF Process for the Conversion of Ulva rigida to Bioethanol
			Time-on-Stream Studies of Solar-Energy-Driven Bioethanol Production from Continuous-Flow SSF of Ulva rigida
		Can Seaweeds Be a Sustainable Feedstock for the Production of Levulinic Acid, a Key Economic Driver for the Biorefinery?
	Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
	Biographical Sketches
Chapter 77
Aluminium Impact on the Growth  of Benthic Diatom
	Abstract
	1. Introduction
	2. Material and Methods
		2.1. Sediments
		2.2. Sediment Preparation and Benthic Diatom Cultivation Experiment  in Response to Contamination by Aluminium
	3. Results and Discussion
		3.1. Sediments Contamination
		3.2. Water Contamination
		3.3. Impact of Aluminium Contamination on Benthic Diatom Growth
	Conclusion
	References
Chapter 78
Evaluation of Micro-Fabric Network  within Marine Sediments Based  on a Rock Magnetic Technique
	Abstract
	1. Introduction
	2. Methodology: A Review
		2.1. Anisotropy of Magnetic Susceptibility
		2.2. Conventional Method
		2.3. Ferrofluid Method
	3. Case Study
		3.1. Geological Background
		3.2. Previous Studies
		3.3. Experimental Scheme
	4. Results
	5. Discussion
		5.1. AMS Fabric
		5.2. Tectonic Implication
	Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
Chapter 79
Actinobacteria from Marine Sediments: Diversity and Secondary Metabolites
	Abstract
	1. Introduction
	2. Samples Collection, Isolation and Cultivation  of Actinobacteria
		2.1. Samples Collection
		2.2. Selective Isolation Procedure
		2.3. Media for Selective Isolation
	3. Identification and Diversity of Actinobacteria
		3.1. Identification Techniques
		3.2. Diversity of Actinobacteria
	4. Secondary Metabolites and Biological Activity  of Actinobacteria
		4.1. Secondary Metabolites and Biological Activity of Streptomyces
		4.2. Secondary Metabolites and Biological Activity of Rare Actinomycetes
	Conclusion
	References
Chapter 80
Bibliography
Chapter 81
Overview of Seaweed By-Products
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Seaweed Composition
	Major Sources of Seaweeds By-Products
		Food
		Industrial Production of Hydrocolloids
		Production of Fertilizers and Plant Growth Stimulants
		Algal Blooms and Beach Wrack
	Valorization and Utilization of Seaweed  By-Products and Wastes
		Separate Utilization of the Constituent Fractions
		Valorization as a Whole
			Biofuel
			Adsorbent
	Examples of Valorization of Seaweed Wastes
		Brown Seaweeds
		Green Seaweeds
		Red Seaweeds
	Conclusion
	References
Chapter 82
Algae and Microalgae Biorefinery
	Abstract
	Introduction
		Macroalgae
		Microalgae
	Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
Chapter 83
Potential Uses of Seaweed By-Products  in High-Value Products and Materials
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Commercial Applications of Seaweeds
		Food Products
		Agriculture
		Biomaterials
		Bioactive Compounds
	Products Derived from Seaweed By-Products
		Products Obtained by Solvent Extraction
		Products Obtained Using the Enzymatic Extraction Process
		Biofuels
		Biocomposites and Composite Materials
	Challenges
	References
Chapter 84
Color Stability and Pigment Contents  of Powdered Laver (Pyropia yezoensis)
	Abstract
	1. Introduction
	2. Materials and Methods
		2.1. Materials
		2.2. Preparation and Storage of Powdered Laver
		2.3. Color Analysis of Powdered Laver
		2.4. Measurement of the Amount of Chlorophyll
		2.5. Measurement of Pheophytin Content
		2.6. Measurement of Carotenoid Levels
		2.7. Analysis of Phycobiliproteins
	3. Results and Discussion
		3.1. Effect of Relative Humidity on Color Stability and Pigment Levels
		3.2. Temperature Dependence of Color Stability and Pigment Levels
	Conclusion
	Acknowledgment
	References
Chapter 85
Understanding the Interactions  of Sargassum muticum with Metals  as a Starting Point for the Valorisation  of Invasive Seaweed Species
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Methods
		Pre-Treatment
		Effect of pH and Ionic Strength
		Potentiometric Titrations
		Isotherms and Kinetics
		Column Studies at Laboratory Scale and Pilot Plants
		Redox Capacity of the Aqueous Extract: Formation of Nanoparticles
	Structural and Acid–Base Properties
	Chemical Composition and Natural Environment
	Binding Capacity for Metals and Other Species
	Column Studies at Laboratory Scale and Pilot Plants
	Redox Capacity of the Aqueous Extract:  Synthesis of Nanoparticles
	The Sorbigal Project
	Conclusion
	References
Chapter 86
New Insights into Seaweeds on  Nutrition and Functionality
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Seaweeds as Functional Food Sources
	Seaweeds as Emergent Sources of Prebiotics
	Fucoidan as Anticancer Agent in Preclinical Development
	Prevention of Syndrome Metabolic by Fucoxanthine
	Prevention of Obesity through Alginate Mediated  by Enzyme Digestion Inhibition
	Phlorotannins as Promising Functional Ingredient
	Fucosterol Still Needs to Reinvent Itself
	Sulphated Polysaccharides as Inhibitors of Calcium Oxalate Renal Stone Formation
	Algae Ingredients as Antimicrobials
	Innovative Extraction Technology of Algal Biomass
	Conclusion
	References
Chapter 87
Microalgae Biomass as a Food Ingredient  to Design Added Value Products
	Abstract
	1. Introduction
		1.1. What Are Microalgae?
		1.2. New Trends in Microalgae Food Applications
	2. Microalgae Pre-Treatment
		2.1. Cell Disruption Methods
		2.2. Impact of Cell Disruption on Rheological Properties of Wheat Bread with Chlorella vulgaris Incorporation
			2.2.1. Morphological Changes on the Cells
			2.2.2. Impact on Rheological and Colour Properties of Wheat Doughs and Breads
			2.2.3. Impact on the Bread Antioxidant Capacity
	3. Impact of Processing on the Microalgae Performance  as a Food Ingredient
		3.1. Antioxidant Activity Microalgae Biomass on Food Emulsions
		3.2. Incorporation of Microalgae as a Source of Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids in Pasta Products
		3.3. Gelled Desserts Enriched with Microalgae
		3.4. Bioactive Cookies
		3.5. Bioaccessibility of Microalgae Biomass
	Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
Chapter 88
Seaweed By-Products for  Food and Bioremediation
	1. Introduction
	2. Seaweed Biomass and By-Products for  Biomonitoring and Bioremediation
		2.1. Seaweeds as Bioindicators
		2.2. Seaweeds By-Products for Bioremediation
	3. Seaweed Biomass for Feeding Fish and Bioremediation  in Integrated Aqua Culture Systems
		3.1. Seaweeds as a Sustainable and Functional Aquafeed Ingredient
		3.2. Seaweeds Biomass for Bioremediation in Integrated Aquaculture Systems
	Conclusion
	Acknowledgment
	References
Chapter 89
Ethanol and Macro Algae: Where to Next?
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Algae Blooms
	Species and Production
	Cultivation System Bottleneck
	Processing and Fermentation of Macroalgae Biomass
	Seaweed Polysaccharides for Bioethanol Production
	Ethanol Production
	Pretreatment
	Hydrolysis
	Enzymatic Hydrolysis
	Fermentation
	Conclusion
	References
Chapter 90
The Brook Lamprey (Lampetra planeri) and Ukrainian Lamprey (Eudontomyzon mariae)  in the Czech Republic: General Biology, Ecology, Distribution and Status with Recommendation for Conservation
	Abstract
	1. Introduction
	2. Results
		2.1. Lamprey Population Monitoring
		2.2. Growth of Larvae and Population Structure of the  Brook Lamprey Population
		2.3. Habitat Selection by Lampreys and Food of Ammocoetes
		2.4. Breeding
		2.5. Metamorphosis
		2.6. Bioindication by Lampreys
		2.7. Occurrence of Lampreys
			2.7.1. Lampetra planeri
			2.7.2. Eudontomyzon mariae
		2.8. Main Threats to Lampreys and Their Conservation and Management
	Acknowledgments
	References
Chapter 91
Lamprey Blood Clotting: A 60-Year Journey from Field Work to Genomics
	Abstract
	Introduction
		Catching Lampreys
		Bleeding Lampreys
	Blood Clotting in Mammals
		Nomenclature of Clotting Factors
	Back to Lampreys
	Species Specificity
	Identifying the Less Abundant Clotting Factors
	Domain Shuffling
	Bioinformatics
	Lamprey Clotting and the 2R Hypothesis
	Fibrin Clots Pre-Date Lampreys
	Afterthoughts
	References
Chapter 92
Morphometric and Meristic Variability  in Lampreys of the Genus Lethenteron (Petromyzontida: Petromyzontiformes)  in Sakhalin Island Rivers
	Abstract
	Abbreviations
	1. Material and Methods
	2. Taxonomic Notes
	3. Results and Discussion
		3.1. Larvae
		3.2. Adults
	Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
Chapter 93
Biology of Common Carp in Natural and Farmed Habitats from a Global Perspective
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Origin, Habitats and Distribution
	Growth and Production
	Length–Weight Relationship and Condition Factors
	Food Habit
	Spawning, Maturation and Fecundity
	Behavior
	References
Chapter 94
Assessing the Effectiveness of Controlled Reproduction of the Common Carp  from 16 Breeding Lines
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Material and Methods
	Results
		Female Ovulation after Ovopel Treatment
		The Effect of the Origin of Females on the Weight, Quality and Total Number of Eggs and the Number of Living Embryos after 36 h Incubation
		The Effect of Female Age on the Weight, Quality and Total Number of Eggs and the Number of Living Embryos after 36 h Incubation
		Regression Predictions
	Summary
	Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
Chapter 95
Utilisation of Natural Food Resources  by Carp in Fish Ponds
	Abstract
	Introduction
	The Changing Role of Natural Food Resources in Central European Carp Farming
		A Short History
	Natural Food Resources in Carp Diet
		The Role of Natural Food Resources in Carp Diet
		Natural Food Resources and Carp Nutrition
	Summarising Carp Impact on Zooplankton and Zoobenthos Assemblages under Extensive Conditions
	Present Pond Management Practice  and Production of Natural Food
	Use of Manure and Lime for Increasing Natural  Food Availability
	Supplementary Feeding and Its Impact  on Natural Food Utilisation
	Acknowledgments
	References
Chapter 96
Zooplankton Ecology in Common Carp Ponds
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Interactions Zooplankton-Carp
		Zooplankton as Food for Carp
		Influence of Pond Management on Zooplankton Ecology
			Fish Stock Density and Biomass
			Supplementary Feeding
			Fertilization
		Zooplankton Succession in Carp Ponds
		Other Interactions
			Predation of Copepods on Carp Juveniles
			Zooplankton as Parasites and Disease Vector
	Interactions Zooplankton-Environment
		Impact of Zooplankton on Pond Ecosystem Health
		Zooplankton Organisms and Pond Water Quality
		Influence of Bioturbation
	Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
Chapter 97
Heavy Metals and Microelements Content  in Common Carp
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Materials and Methods
		Study Area and Sample Collection
		Sample Preparation
		Statistical Analysis
	Results and Discussion
		Target Organs for Bioaccumulation of Heavy Metals and Microelements in Common Carp
		Sampling Sites Variations of Bioaccumulation of Heavy Metals  and Microelements in Common Carp
		Species-Specific Differences in the Bioaccumulation of Heavy Metals  and Microelements
		Ecosystems Variations of Accumulations of Heavy Metals in Common Carp
	Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
Chapter 98
Factors Affecting the Meat Quality  of Common Carp
	Abstract
	Introduction
	The Significance of Fish in the Human Nutrition
	Factors Affecting Changes in the Chemical and Fatty Acid Composition of Meat of Common Carp
		Chemical Composition of the Fillets of Various Fish Species
		Effects of Diet on the Chemical Composition of Common Carp
		Effects of Good Production Technology and Appropriate Structure  of Planktonic and Benthic Organisms on Chemical and Fatty Acid Composition of Common Carp
		Effects of Formulated Feed Mixtures on Fish Health, Production Parameters and Meat Quality
		Effects of Age, Sex and Genetic Factors on the Chemical Composition  of Fish Meat
			Age
			Sex and Sexual Maturity
	Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
Chapter 99
Diseases of Common Carp  and Their Control Measures
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Saprolegniasis
		Causative Agents
		Disease Signs
		Management and Control
	Branchyomycosis
		Causative Agent
		Disease Signs
		Management and Control
	Erythrodermatitis
		Causative Agents
		Disease Signs
		Management and Control
	Columnaris Disease
		Causative Agent
		Disease Signs
		Management and Control
	Bacterial Gill Disease
		Causative Agent
		Disease Signs
		Management and Control
	Mycobacteriosis
		Causative Agent
		Disease Signs
		Management and Control
	Spring Viraemia of Carp (SVC)
		Causative Agent
		Disease Signs
		Management and Control
		Carp Pox
		Causative Agent
		Disease Signs
		Management and Control
	Koi Herpes Virus Disease (KHV)
		Causative Agent
		Disease Signs
		Costiasis
		Causative Agents
		Disease Signs
		Management and Control
		Coccidiosis
		Causative Agents
		Disease Signs
		Management and Control
		Ich (White Spot Disease)
		Causative Agent
		Disease Signs
		Management and Control
		Chilodonellosis
		Causative Agent
		Disease Signs
		Management and Control
		Trichodiniasis
		Causative Agent
		Disease Signs
		Management and Control
		Myxobolosis
		Causative Agent
		Disease Signs
		Management and Control
		Dactylogyrosis
		Causative Agents
		Disease Signs
		Management and Control
		Gyrodactylosis
		Causative Agents
		Disease Signs
		Management and Control
		Causative Agents
		Disease Signs
		Management and Control
		Phosthodiplostomosis
		Causative Agent
		Disease Signs
		Management and Control
		Sanguinicoliasis
		Causative Agents
		Disease Signs
		Management and Control
		Ligulosis
		Causative Agent
		Disease Signs
		Management and Control
		Bothriocephalosis
		Causative Agent
		Disease Signs
		Management and Control
		Khawiosis
		Causative Agents
		Disease Signs
		Management and Control
		Nematode Infestation
		Causative Agents
		Disease Signs
		Management and Control
		Phylometrosis
		Causative Agent
		Disease Signs
		Management and Control
		Fish Leech Infestation
		Causative Agent
		Disease Signs
		Management and Control
		Ergasilosis
		Causative Agents
		Disease Signs
		Management and Control
		Lernaeosis
		Causative Agents
		Disease Signs
		Management and Control
		Argulosis
		Causative Agents
		Disease Signs
		Management and Control
	References
Chapter 100
Blooms Caused by the Diatom Cylindrotheca closterium along the Northern Coast of Yucatan, Southeastern Gulf of Mexico (2001-2014)
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Material and Methods
	Results
	Discussion
	Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
Chapter 101
Phytoplankton Chlorophyll-( Concentration Associated with Hydrographic Conditions on the Continental Shelf in the Southern  Gulf of Mexico
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Material and Methods
	Results
		Regional Hydrographic Conditions
		Chlorophyll-a Distribution
	Discussion
	Acknowledgments
	References
Chapter 102
Molecular Identification of Thunnus Species
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Review of the Molecular Identification History  of Thunnus Tunas Since the 1990s
	Thunnus Species Identification
		Sequencing
		PCR-RFLP
		Real-Time PCR
		Other Techniques
	Phylogenetic Studies
		Allozyme Locus Analysis
		Gene Sequence Analysis
	Population Genetics Studies
		Thunnus albacares (Yellowfin Tuna)
		Thunnus alalunga (Albacore)
		Thunnus obesus (Bigeye)
		Thunnus orientalis (Pacific Bluefin Tuna)
		Thunnus thynnus (Atlantic North Bluefin Tuna)
		Thunnus maccoyii (Southern Bluefin Tuna)
	Conclusion
	References
Chapter 103
Marine Bacteria with Strong Survivability toward Tributyltin
	Abstract
	Tributyltin in a Marine Environment
	Biodiversity of TBT-Resistant Marine Bacteria
	Importance of Marine Bacterial Cell Walls to Protect against the Inflow of TBT
	Existence of Environmental Bacteria Possessing Congenital TBT Tolerance
	Estimation of the Impact of TBT-Resistant Marine Bacteria in TBT-Polluted Surface Sediment
	Bioremediation of TBT-Contaminated Sediments  by TBT-Degradable Marine Bacteria
	References
	Biographical Sketch
Chapter 104
The Strait of Hormuz:  Characteristics, Challenges and Opportunities in the Northern Coastline
	Abstract
	1. Geography and Geomorphology of the Strait of Hormuz
	2. Living Marine Resources
		2.1. Coral Reefs
		2.2. Mangrove Forests
		2.3. Planktonic Assemblages
		2.4. Bony Fish and Elasmobranches
		2.5. Macrobenthos
	3. Changing Environmental Conditions
	4. Pollution
	5. Coastal Ecotourism Potentials
		5.1. Mangrove Forests
		5.2. Marine Wildlife Watching
	Acknowledgment
	References
Chapter 105
Macroalgal Polyphenols:  Isolation, Characterization and Bioactivity
	Abstract
	1. Introduction
		1.1. The Classes of Marine Algae and Their Bioactive Compounds
		1.2. The Diversity of Phenolic Compounds Derived from Macroalgae
	2. The Analysis of Phenolic Compounds
		2.1. The Extraction and Characterization of Polyphenols in Macroalgae
			2.1.1. Conventional Polyphenol Extraction Methods
			2.1.2. Novel Extraction Methods for the Isolation of Polyphenols
				Supercritical CO2 Extraction (SC-CO2)
				Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction (UAE)
				Subcritical Water Extraction (SWE)
				Microwave-Assisted Extraction (MAE)
		2.2. The Analysis of Phenolic Compounds
		2.3. Phlorotannins as Biologically Active Agents
	Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
Chapter 106
The Identification, Characteristic Feature and Role of Burrow (Neoichnological) Structure in Bioturbation Activities of Ocypodoid and Grapsoid Crabs of Pakistan
	Abstract
	1. Introduction
	2. Bioturbation Role and Ecological Significance  of Burrows and Burrowing
	3. Environmental Factors Affecting on Burrow  Density and Distribution
	4. Role of Substratum in Microhabitat Specification
		4.1. Organic Matter
		4.2. Grain Size Composition
	5. Relationship between Density of Crabs  and Crab Burrows
	6. Relationship of Carapace Length and Burrow Diameter
	7. Inter and Intra-Specific Variations  in Burrow Architecture
	8. Sematectonic Communication through Allied Landmark and Structures Near Burrows
	9. Anthropogenic Effects on Burrow and Burrowing
	References
Chapter 107
Estimating Intrinsic Optimum Temperatures and Lower and Upper Thermal Thresholds  for the Development of American Lobster Larvae Using a Thermodynamic Model
	Abstract
	1. Introduction
	2. Materials and Methods
		2.1. Sources of Development Data
		2.2. Estimating SSI Model Parameters
		2.3. Calculating Bootstrap Confidence Intervals of Parameter Estimates
		2.4. Comparisons of Estimates among Larval Stages and Studies
		2.5. Combined Analyses Using All Studies’ Data
	3. Results
		3.1. Overall Findings
		3.2. Comparisons among Larval Stages for Each Study
		3.3. Comparisons among Studies for Each Larval Stage
		3.4. Results for All Datasets Combined
	4. Discussion
		4.1. Variability and Issues among Estimates Based on Different Source Studies’ Data
		4.2. Interpretation and Implications of Estimates Based on All Studies’  Data Combined
		4.3. Findings Relevant to SSI Model Fitting Procedures
		4.4. Need for New Rearing Studies to be Analyzed with the SSI Model
	Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
Chapter 108
The Cryptic Homarus gammarus (L., 1758) Juveniles: A Comparative Approach to the Mystery of Their Whereabouts
	Abstract
	1. Introduction
	2. Methods
	3. Results
		3.1. Overall Comparisons among Decapods
		3.2. Morphology
		3.3. Life History
		3.4. Biotope
		3.5. Behavior
	4. Discussion: The Full Picture
	Acknowledgments
	References
	Biographical Sketches
Chapter 109
Biologic and Socioeconomic Harvesting Strategies for the Caribbean  Spiny Lobster Fisheries
	Abstract
	1. Introduction
	2. Materials and Methods
		2.1. Data, Models, and Analyses
		2.2. The Simulations
		2.3. Theoretical Statement
	3. Results
		3.1. Optimum Yields
		3.2. Optimum Economic Yields
		3.3. Social Benefits
	4. Discussion
		4.1. The Model Output
		4.2. Management Options
	Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
Chapter 110
Marine Debris: Interagency Committee Members Are Taking Action, but Additional Steps Could Enhance the Federal Response(
	Why GAO Did This Study
	What GAO Recommends
	What GAO Found
	Abbreviations
	Background
		Marine Debris Act
	Interagency Committee Coordinates through Meetings, but NOAA Does Not Have a Process for Determining Committee Membership and Agency Representation
		Interagency Committee Holds Quarterly Meetings to Share Information about Individual Agency Activities Such as Education and Outreach
		NOAA Has Not Established a Process for Determining Interagency Committee Membership and Agency Representation
	Interagency Committee’s Reports Do Not Contain Some Required Elements
		Implementation of Recommendations and Analysis of Effectiveness
		Estimated Funding and Recommendations for Priority Funding Needs
	Experts Suggested a Range of Actions the Federal Government Could Take to Most Effectively  Address Marine Debris
		Education and Outreach
		Establishment of Federal Requirements or Incentives
		Cleanup
		Research and Technology Development
		Coordination
	Conclusion
	Recommendations for Executive Action
		Agency Comments and Our Evaluation
		List of Requesters
	Appendix I: Objectives, Scope, and Methodology
	Appendix II: Recommendations from the Interagency Marine Debris Coordinating Committee’s 2008 Report
	Appendix III: Examples of Interagency Marine Debris Coordinating Committee Member Agencies’ Activities
		Education and Outreach
		Legislation, Regulation, and Policy
		Cleanup
		Research and Technology Development
		Coordination
	Appendix IV: Comments from the Department of Commerce
	Appendix V: Comments from the U.S. Agency  for International Development
Chapter 111
The Effects of Marine Debris on Beach Recreation and Regional Economies in  Four Coastal Communities:  A Regional Pilot Study*
	Executive Summary
		Study Design
		Survey Results
		Recreational Value
		Regional Economic Impacts
	1. Introduction
		1.1.  Marine Debris Survey
		1.2.  Nationwide Recreation Model
		1.3.  Regional Economic Impact Analysis
	2. The Marine Debris Survey
		2.1. Survey Design
			2.1.1. Onsite and Mail Survey Pretest
			2.1.2. Onsite Survey – Regional Pilot
			2.1.3. Mail Survey – Regional Pilot
		2.2. Survey Implementation
			2.2.1. Survey Schedule and Response Rates
			2.2.2. Onsite Sampling Procedures
				Alabama
				Delaware/Maryland
				Ohio
				Orange County, California
			2.2.3. Sample Statistics
		2.3. Development of Sampling Weights
			2.3.1. Base Weights
			2.3.2. Reweighting Mail Respondents
		2.4. Results of the Marine Debris Survey
			2.4.1. Population Statistics
			2.4.2. Effects of Marine Debris on Recreation Trips
	3. Recreational Value Model
		3.1. Nationwide Recreation Model
			3.1.1. Nationwide Coastal Recreation Data
			3.1.2. Model Structure
			3.1.3. Estimated Model Parameters
		3.2. Comparisons to External Sources
			3.2.1. Effects of Debris on Recreation
			3.2.2. Seasonal Consistency
			3.2.3. Debris Ratings
			3.2.4. Benefit Function Transfer
		3.3. Caveats and Uncertainties
		3.4. Effects of Marine Debris on Recreation Value
	4. Regional Economic Impacts Model
		4.1. Trip Expenditures
		4.2. Economic Impacts of Coastal Recreation
		4.3. Regional Economic Impacts of Marine Debris
		4.4. Caveats and Uncertainties
	5. Summary of Results
	References
	Appendix A: Example Surveys
		Beach Recreation Survey - Alabama
			Garbage or Manmade Debris You May See on Beaches
		Beach Recreation Survey – Delaware and Maryland
			Garbage or Manmade Debris You May See on Beaches
		Beach Recreation Survey – Lake Erie, Ohio
			Garbage or Manmade Debris You May See on Beaches
		Beach Recreation Survey – Orange County, California
			Garbage or Manmade Debris You May See on Beaches
	Appendix B: Mail Survey Summary Statistics
	Appendix C: Methods for Reweighting Mail Respondents
		Adjusting Sampling Weights Using Key Variables
	Appendix D: Detailed Methods of Economic Impacts Model
		D.1. Converting Visitor Spending into Producer Value
		D.2. Expenditure and Multiplier Tables
Chapter 112
Great Lakes Land-Based Marine Debris Action Plan Accomplishments Report(
	List of Acronyms
	Introduction
	Action Plan Purpose
	Action Plan Status
	Marine Debris Goals, Objectives and Actions
	Goals
		Objectives
		Actions
		Vision
		Mission
	Goal 1. Research and Monitoring
		Action Status
		Goal Accomplishments
			Great Lakes Marine Debris Collaborative Portal (Objective 1.1)
			Convened Researchers to Foster Collaboration (Objective 1.2)
			Completed a Research Summary and Gap Analysis (Objective 1.3)
			Management Community Connections (Objective 1.4)
	Goal 2. Science-Based Approaches and Management
		Action Status
		Goal Accomplishments
			Summary of Existing Marine Debris Policies (Objective 2.1)
			Dissemination of Action Plan to Policy and Management Officials (Objective 2.2, Actions 2.2.1 and 2.2.2)
	Goal 3. Prevention and Education
		Action Status
		Goal Accomplishments
			Education Needs Assessment (Objective 3.1)
			Awareness Campaign in Cleveland, OH (Objective 3.2)
		Outreach Highlights
	Goal 4. Removal and Tracking
		Action Status
		Goal Accomplishments
			Bi-Nationally Remove Marine Debris (Objective 4.1)
			Best Management Practices for Removing and Preventing Debris (Objective 4.2)
Chapter 113
Statement of Anne Kinsinger,  Associate Director for Ecosystems(
	Role of the U.S. Geological Survey
	USGS Capabilities
Chapter 114
Statement of Stephen Guertin,  Deputy Director U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Department of the Interior(
	Marine Debris Overview
		Plastics and Microplastics
		Derelict Fishing Gear
		Abandoned and Derelict Vessels
	Examples from across the National  Wildlife Refuge System
		Northwestern Hawaiian Islands and Midway Atoll National Wildlife Refuges
		Maine Coastal Island National Wildlife Refuge Complex
		Florida Keys National Wildlife Refuge Complex
	Conclusion
Chapter 115
Testimony of Christy Leavitt,  Campaign Director, Oceana(
	Oceans Are Critical to Life on Earth
	Plastic Pollution is a Growing Problem for Ocean Health
	Solution: Reduce Plastic Pollution at the Source
	Governments Play a Critical Role in  Reducing Plastic Pollution
Chapter 116
Written Testimony of Linsey E. Haram, Research Ecologist,  Smithsonian Environmental  Research Center(
	Introduction
	Plastic Marine Debris
	Floating Plastics as Vectors for Invasive Species
	Current Research and Collaborations
		1. Ecological Community Surveys
		2. Large Floating Debris Movement
		3. Marine Invertebrate Colonization of New Debris
		4. Education and Outreach
	Conclusion
Chapter 117
Written Testimony of Dr. Chelsea Rochman, House Appropriations Subcommittee on Interior, Environment and Related Agencies Hearing on Ecosystem Impacts of Marine Debris/Ocean Plastic Pollution(
	Microplastics
	Macroplastics
Chapter 118
Mussels as Sentinel Organisms in Metal  and Metalloid Contamination Scenarios: Environmental and Public  Health Risk Bioindicators
	Abstract
	1. Introduction
	2. Metal and Metalloid Toxicity
	3. Mussels as Bioindicators Concerning Environmental Metal and Metalloid Contamination
	4. Subcellular and Molecular Effects of Metal and Metalloid Exposure: Reactive Oxygen Species and Oxidative Stress
	5. Mussel Biomarker Responses against  Metal - and Metalloid-Induced Oxidative Stress
	6. Mussel Responses to Nanoparticle Exposure
	7. Necessary Considerations When Applying Mussels  as Bioindicators for Metal and Metalloid Exposure  in Aquatic Ecosystems
	8. Mussels and Public Health
	Conclusion
	References
Chapter 119
Mussel Shells’ Thermal Valorisation  and Odour Emissions
	Abstract
	1. Introduction
		1.1. Odour Management
	2. Case Study
	3. Methodology
		3.1. Greening the Process
		3.2. Olfactometric Analysis
			3.2.1. Qualitative Analysis
			3.2.2. Quantitative Analysis
			3.2.3. Immission Analysis
		3.3. Results
			3.3.1. Detection of Improvable Flows
			3.3.2. Identification of Solutions
				3.3.2.1. Reception and Storage of Raw Materials
				3.3.2.2. Thermal Treatment
				3.3.2.3. Final Product Management
				3.3.2.4. Waste Water Treatment Plant (WWTP)
	Conclusion
	References
Chapter 120
Determination of Emerging Metal Pollutants and Toxic Metals in Mussels  and Bivalve Mollusks, Very Important Food and Environmental Bio-Monitoring Species
	Abstract
	Experimental
		Reagents, Reference Solutions, and Standard Reference Materials
		Sampling Area and Sampling Sites
		Sample Preparation before the Instrumental Determination
		Voltammetric Procedure
		Spectroscopic Procedure
		Limits of Detection
		Metals of Interest
			Copper, Lead, Cadmium and Zinc
			Mercury
			Arsenic and Selenium
			Tin and Antimony
			Nickel and Cobalt
		Chromium
		Bismuth
		Vanadium
		Platinum Group Metals (PGMs)
			Determination of PGMs, Part I: Pt(II), Pd(II) and Rh(III)
			Determination of PGMs, Part II: Os(VIII), Ru(III) and Ir(III)
		Thallium
			Analytical Procedure for the Voltammetric Determination of Tl(I)
	Results and Discussion
		Limits of Detection and Linear Range
		Quality Control and Quality Assessment
		Practical Application
		Bio-Remediation
	Conflict of Interest
	References
Chapter 121
Hemocytes of the Ribbed Mussel  Aulacomya atra atra from Nuevo Gulf (Chubut) as Biomarkers of Oxidative Stress
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Objective
	Materials and Methods
		Zones Selected
		Animal Collection
		Flow Cytometry Studies
		Superoxide Anion Production
		DCFH-DA Oxidation Rate
		Content of Thiobarbituric Acid Reactive Substances (TBARS)
		Quantification of Lipid Radicals by Electron Paramagnetic Resonance (EPR)-Spin Trapping
		Cardiolipin Content
		Statistical Analyses
	Results
	Discussion
	Acknowledgments
	References
	Biographical Sketches
Chapter 122
Biomarker Responses in Bivalves Affected by Environmental Stressors Associated with the Global Climate Change
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Acidification
	Seasonality
	Temperature
	Salinity
	Oxygen Partial Pressure (pO2)
	Biotoxins
	Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
	Biographical Sketches
Chapter 123
The Effects of Ascorbic Acid on Lipid Oxidation during the Processing of Mytilus edulis chilensis in the Beagle Channel  (Tierra del Fuego)
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Materials and Methods
		Experimental Design
		Physico-Chemical Determination in the Sampling Area
			TBARS Content
			Lipid Soluble Antioxidants Content
			Ascorbyl Radical Content (A•)
			Ascorbate Content (AH-)
			Statistical Analyses
	Results
	Discussion
	Acknowledgments
	References
Chapter 124
A Sea of Problems: Impacts of Plastic Pollution on Oceans and Wildlife(
	Statement of the Hon. S. Alan Lowenthal,  Representative in Congress from the State of California
	Prepared Statement of the Hon. Alan S. Lowenthal,  Representative in Congress from the State of California
	Statement of the Hon. Tom Mcclintock,  Representative in Congress from the State of California
	Prepared Statement of the Hon. Tom Mcclintock,  Ranking Member, Subcommittee on Water,  Oceans, and Wildlife
	Statement of Ted Danson, Actor, Advocate,  and Board Member, Oceana, Los Angeles, California
	Prepared Statement of Ted Danson, Vice Chair,  Oceana Board of Directors, Los Angeles, California
	Questions Submitted for the Record by  Rep. Velázquez to Ted Danson
	Statement of Juan Parras, Founder, Executive Director, Texas Environmental Justice Advocacy Services (TEJAS), Houston, Texas
	Prepared Statement of Juan Parras,  Executive Director, Texas Environmental Justice Advocacy Services (T.E.J.A.S.)
	Questions Submitted for the Record  to Mr. Juan Parras
		Question Submitted by Rep. Lowenthal
		Question Submitted by Rep. Velázquez
		Question Submitted by Rep. Cox
	Statement of Dr. Jenna Jambeck, Professor of Environmental Engineering, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia
	Prepared Statement of Jenna R. Jambeck, PhD,  Professor of Environmental Engineering,  College of Engineering, University of Georgia,  Athens, Georgia; National Geographic Fellow
		Key Points
		Introduction
		Context
		Introduction
		Impacts from Plastic Marine Debris
		Input into the Ocean from Mismanaged Plastic Waste
		Import-Export of Plastic Waste
		It’s a Global Issue
		Interventions and Mitigation Strategies
			1. Reducing Plastic Production
			2. Innovative Materials and Product Design
			3. Reduce Waste Generation
			4. Improve Waste Management Globally
			5. Litter Capture
		Community-Based Data Collection and Assessment
		The U.S. Can Be a Global Leader in Addressing This Issue
		Summary
	Questions Submitted for the Record to Jenna R. Jambeck, PhD Professor of Environmental Engineering,  College of Engineering, University of Georgia
		Questions from Rep. Alan Lowenthal
		Questions from Rep. Nydia M. Velazquez
		Questions Submitted by Rep. Cox
	Statement of Tony Radoszewski, President and CEO, Plastics Industry Association, Washington, DC
	Prepared Statement of Tony Radoszewski,  President and CEO, Plastics Industry Association
	Questions Submitted for the Record by Rep. Mcclintock to Mr. Tony Radoszewski, Plastics Industry Association
		Sustainable Packaging
		Government Response
		Possible Solutions
	Submission for the Record by Rep. Lowenthal
		Regional Partners/Zips
		Using Sound Science to Inform Policy
		Multi-Pronged, Innovative Approaches
	Submission for the Record by Rep. Lowenthal, Strategies to Reduce the Global Carbon Footprint of Plastics
		Online Content
		References
		Acknowledgments
		Author Contributions
		Competing Interests
		Additional Information
Chapter 125
Cleaning Up the Oceans: How to Reduce the Impact of Man-Made Trash on the Environment, Wildlife, and Human Health(
	Opening Statement of Hon. John Barrasso,  U.S. Senator from the State of Wyoming
	Opening Statement of Hon. Thomas R. Carper,  U.S. Senator from the State of Delaware
	Opening Statement of Hon. Dan Sullivan,  U.S. Senator from the State of Alaska
	Opening Statement of Hon. Sheldon Whitehouse,  U.S. Senator from the State of Rhode Island
	Dooley to Remain at ACC through the End of 2019
	Statement of Jonathan Baillie, Executive Vice President and Chief Scientist, National Geographic Society
	Written Testimony of Dr. Jonathan Baillie, Executive Vice President and Chief Scientist National Geographic Society, before the United States Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works “Cleaning Up the Oceans: How to Reduce the Impact of Man-Mad...
		Plastics: A Global Crisis
			Impact of Plastic Debris on Marine Wildlife
			Impact of Plastic Debris on Humans
			My Background on the Issue
			Planet or Plastic?
		Investing in Change
			Stopping Plastic Pollution at Its Source
			Improving Plastics Waste Management
			Cleaning Up Plastic Fishing Gear Pollution
			Partnership for Change
		An Opportunity for U.S. Leadership
			U.S. Plastic Waste
			Model Nation and Innovation
		Appendix
			World Map Display of Plastic Waste in Oceans via National Geographic
			Recent Editorial Co-Authored by Jonathan Baillie
	Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works, Hearing Entitled, “Cleaning Up the Oceans: How to Reduce the Impact of Man-Made Trash on the Environment, Wildlife, and Human Health?”, September 26, 2018
		Chairman Barrasso
		Ranking Member Carper
		Senator Markey
		Senator Merkley
		Senator Whitehouse
	Statement of Hon. Cal Dooley, President and CEO, American Chemistry Council
	American Chemistry Council, Statement for the Record, Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works, “Cleaning Up the Oceans: How to Reduce the Impact of Man-Made Trash on the Environment, Wildlife,  and Human Health,” September 26, 2018
	Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works, Hearing Entitled, "Cleaning Up the Oceans: How to Reduce the Impact of Man-Made Trash on the Environment, Wildlife, and Human Health?", September 26, 2018, Questions for the Record for the Honorable Ca...
		Chairman Barrasso
			Circulate Capital
			Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC)
		Ranking Member Carper
			Education of Consumers
			Investment in Technology and Infrastructure
		Senator Whitehouse
			Save the Bay Narragansett Bay, Rhode Island
			Keep It Beachy Clean (Virginia Beach)
			Circulate Capital
	Statement of Bruce Karas, President of Environment  and Sustainability, Coca-Cola North America
	Testimony of Bruce Karas, Vice President of Environment and Sustainability, the Coca-Cola Company North America, before the United States Senate, Environment  and Public Works Committee, Hearing on Marine Debris,  September 26, 2018
		Design
		Collect
		Partner
	Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works, Hearing Entitled, "Cleaning Up the Oceans: How to Reduce the Impact of Man-Made Trash on the Environment, Wildlife, and Human Health?", September 26, 2018, Questions for the Record for Mr. Bruce Karas
		Chairman Barrasso
			China
			Indonesia
			Philippines
			Thailand
			Vietnam
		Ranking Member Carper
		Senator Markey
		Senator Merkley
		Senator Whitehouse
	Statement of Kara Lavender Law, Research Professor  of Oceanography, Sea Education Association
	Written Testimony of: Kara Lavender Law, PhD, Research Professor of Oceanography, Sea Education Association, Woods Hole, Massachusetts, before the U.S. Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works, Hearing: “Cleaning Up the Oceans: How to Reduce t...
		Introduction
		Plastics: Ubiquitous, Long-Lived and Harmful to Wildlife
		Identifying the Sources
		From Sources to Solutions
			Contain the Waste
			Clean Up Uncontained Waste
			Sustainable Solutions
		Concluding Remarks
	Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works, Hearing Entitled, "Cleaning Up the Oceans: How to Reduce the Impact of Man-Made Trash on the Environment, Wildlife, and Human Health?", September 26, 2018, Questions for the Record for Dr. Kara Lavende...
		Chairman Barrasso
		Ranking Member Carper
		Senator Markey
		Senator Merley
		Senator Whitehouse
	G7 Innovation Challenge to Address Marine Plastic Litter
		Examples of Implementation Mechanisms
	Plastic Pollution Is Now Spreading from Ocean Food Chains into Land Animals, Thanks to This Insect
	Statement for the Record, of the September 26, 2018, Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works Public, Public Hearing, on the Subject: "Cleaning Up the Oceans: How to Reduce the Impact of Man-Made Trash on the Environment, Wildlife, and Human H...
		Microplastics
		Marine Debris in General
		Regional Partnerships
		Using Sound Science to Inform Policy
		Multi-Pronged, Innovative Approaches
Chapter 126
Marine Environment and Contaminations  of Radiocesium and Organohalogens in Cetaceans and Pacific Cod Inhabiting the Coastal Waters around Hokkaido,  Northern Japan
	Abstract
	1. Sea Areas of Hokkaido
		1.1. Introduction to the Sea Areas of Hokkaido
		1.2. Sea Currents around Hokkaido, Japan
		1.3. Coastal Zone
		1.4. Cetaceans and Their Migrations
		1.5. Fishes and Their Migrations
		1.6. Conclusion
	2. Radiocesium Contamination and Migratory Behavior  of Cetaceans and Pacific Cods from the Seawaters  of Hokkaido
		2.1. Introduction
		2.2. Contamination of Radiocesium in Stranded Cetaceans on the Coast  of Hokkaido
		2.3. Contamination of Radiocesium in Pacific Cod Caught Off Hokkaido
		2.4. Stable Carbon and Nitrogen Isotope Ratios in Fish and Cetaceans in the Seawater around Hokkaido
		2.5. Conclusion
	3. Perfluoroalkyl Substances in Cetaceans  and Fish from the Seas of Northern Japan
		3.1. Introduction
		3.2. PFASs in Cetaceans
			3.2.1. Stranded Cetacean Samples for PFASs Analysis
			3.2.2. Tissue-Specific Accumulation and Species Differences
				PFOS (C8S) and PFOA (C8A)
				Long-Chain PFCAs (C9A-C14A)
			3.2.3. Congener-Specific Accumulation
			3.2.4. Geographical Distribution
				PFOS (C8S)
				PFOA (C8A)
				Long-Chain PFCAs (C9A to C14A)
		3.3. PFCAs in Pacific Cods
			3.3.1. Profiles and Levels of PFCAs in Hokkaido
			3.3.2. Geographical Distribution
			3.3.3. PFCAs in the Food Chain
		3.4. Conclusion
	4. Anthropogenic Organohalogens in Cetaceans and Fish from Northern Japan
		4.1. Introduction
		4.2. POPs Contamination in Cetaceans
		4.3. POPs Contamination in Pacific Cod
		4.4. Conclusion
	5. Contamination of Naturally Produced Organohalogens in Northern Japan
		5.1. Introduction
		5.2. Profiles and Levels of NHCs in Hokkaido
			Br4Cl2-DBP
			Cl7-MBP
			MeO-BDEs
		5.3. Comparisons between Natural and Anthropogenic Compounds
			PFCAs and NHCs
			PCBs and NHCs
		5.4. Conclusion
	References
Chapter 127
Comparative Study of Histopathological and Biochemical Biomarkers of Two Black Sea Marine Fish Species, Belonging to Different Ecological Groups
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Materials and Methods
		Biological Characteristics of Tested Fish Species
		Sample Preparation for Histochemical Studies
		Sample Preparation for Biochemical Studies and Antioxidants Assay
			Statistical Analysis
	Results
		Hystopathological Characteristics of Fish Liver and Spleen
			Scorpion Fish
		Antioxidant System of the Fish Species
	Discussion
	Conclusion
	References
Chapter 128
Design of IoT-Cloud Marine Knowledge System Based on Open Source
	Abstract
	1. Introduction
	2. Marine Knowledge System
		2.1. Proposal System Concept
			2.1.1. Marine μBox (MB)
			2.1.2. Marine IoT-Cloud Hub
			2.1.3. Red Tide Prediction Server
		2.2. Test of Designed Marine Knowledge System
	Conclusion
	References
Chapter 129
Methods of Determination  of Micropollutants in  Different Marine Matrices
	Abstract
	1. Introduction
	2. The Organic Pollutants
		2.1. Organochlorine Pesticides (OCPs)
		2.2. Synthetic Musks
		2.3. Triazole Pesticides
	3. Detection Techniques for Organic Pollutants
		3.1. Gas Chromatography
		3.2. High Performance Liquid Chromatography
		3.3. High Performance Liquid Chromatography Coupled to Mass Spectrometry Detector and Quadrupole Time of Flight Analyzer  (HPLC-MS-QTOF)
			3.3.1. Mass Spectrometer
				3.3.1.1. Ionization Source: Electrospray Ionization Source (ESI)
				3.3.1.2. Electrospray History
				3.3.1.3. Desolvation/Ionization Mechanism
				3.3.1.4. Electro-Nebulization of Liquid under Influence of an Electric Field
				3.3.1.5. Factors Influencing Ionization
			3.3.2. QTOF Analyser
	4. Extraction Techniques of Organic Pollutants
		4.1. Soxhlet Extractor
			4.1.1. The Advantages and Disadvantages of Soxhle Extraction
			4.1.2. Example of Study 1: Distribution of Organochlorine Pesticides in Sediment Cores from the Bizerte Lagoon (Tunisia) (Necibi et al. 2019)
			4.1.3. Example of Study 2: Distribution of Organochlorine Pesticides in Suspended Particulate Matter and Sediment from the Bizerte Lagoon, Tunisia (Necibi et al. 2019)
				4.1.3.1. Residual Levels of OCPs in SPM
				4.1.3.2. Residual Levels of OCPs in Sediment
		4.2. Liquid-Liquid Extraction (LLE)
			4.2.1. The Advantages and Disadvantages of Liquid-Liquid Extraction
			4.2.2. Example of Study: Distribution and Partitioning of Aliphatic Hydrocarbons and Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons between Water, Suspended Particulate Matter, and Sediment in the Harbours of the West Coast of the Gulf of Tunis (Tunisia) (Mzoughi e...
		4.3. QuEChERS Extraction Method
			4.3.1. The Advantages of Extraction with QuEChERS
			4.3.2. Example of Study 1: Determination of Synthetic Musks in Surface Sediment from the Bizerte Lagoon by QuEChERs Extraction Followed by GC-MS (Necibi et al. 2016)
		4.4. Solid Phase Extraction (SPE)
			4.4.1. Definition of SPE
			4.4.2. SPE Protocol
			4.4.3. Example of Study 1: Response Surface Methodology Approach for the Preparation of a Molecularly Imprinted Polymer for Solid Phase Extraction of Fenoxycarb Pesticide in Mussels (Atayat et al. 2019)
	5. Detection Techniques of Inorganic Pollutants
		5.1. Heavy Metal
		5.2. Atomic Absorption Spectrometry
			5.2.1. Example of Study 1: Assessment of Heavy Metals in Sediment and in Suspended Particles Affected by Multiple Anthropogenic Contributions in Harbors (Chouba et al. 2011).
	References
	Biographical Sketch
Chapter 130
Organochlorine Pesticides (OCPs)  in Coastal Marine Environments:  Levels, Fate, Behavior, and Effects on Biota
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Production and Use
	Management
	Current Sources to Coastal Environments
	Environmental Fate and Behavior of OCPs
		Factor: Nature and Physic-Chemical Properties of OCPs
		Factor: Environmental Characteristics and Conditions
			Water
			Sediment
			Air
			Biota
	Toxicity
		Wild Animal Toxicity
		Human Toxicity
	Current OCP Levels in Coastal Sediments
		Literature Review and Information Processing
		Results and Discussion
			DDTs
			HCHs
			Drins
			Endosulfans
			Other Organochlorine Pesticides
	Conclusion
	References
	Biographical Sketches
Chapter 131
Atmospheric POPs Threat the  Marine Environments
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Considerations on the Atmospheric Transport of POPs
	Oceanic Atmospheric Deposition:  Relevance, Control and Implications
	Oceanic POPs Outgassing
	Conclusion
	References
	Biographical Sketch
Chapter 132
Microplastics Pollution: From Continental Sources to Marine Systems
	Abstract
	Introduction
		The Relevance of Microplastics Contribution from Continental Sources
		Continental MPs Sources
			Soil
			Atmosphere
			Lakes, Rivers and Estuaries
		Pathways of Continental Microplastics: Environmental Variables and Particles Characteristics
			Dry and Wet Atmospheric Deposition
			Precipitation Patterns and Runoff
			Hydrodynamics
		Worldwide Continental Influence on Ocean Pollution by MPs
	Conclusion
	References
	Biographical Sketches
Chapter 133
Bioindicators of Pollution  in Marine Environments
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Nutrient Pollution Bioindicators
	Metal Pollution Bioindicators
	Bioindicators of Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)
	Plastic Pollution Bioindicators
	Bioindicators of Emerging Pollutants (EPs)
	Acoustic Pollution Bioindicators
	Conclusion
	References
	Biographical Sketch
Chapter 134
Occurrence, Behavior and Ecotoxicity  of Organophosphorus Pesticides (OPPs)  in Marine Environments: A Review
	Abstract
	1. Introduction: History, Chemistry and Uses  of Organophosphorus Pesticides
		1.1. History and Evolution of Organophosphorus Compounds and Opps
		1.2. Chemistry
		1.3. Uses of OPPs
		1.4. Currently Used OPPs, Quantities and Restricted Compounds
	2. Chemical Properties of OPPs  and Environmental Behavior
		2.1. Physical- Chemical Properties of OPPs: Structures and Related Parameters of 28 Compounds
		2.2. OPPs Mechanisms of Degradation and Sorption in Estuaries and Oceans
			2.2.1. Hydrolysis
			2.2.2. Oxidation
			2.2.3. Biodegradation
			2.2.4. Photodegradation
			2.2.5. Sorption
	3. Current OPP Levels in Marine Environments
		3.1. OPPs in Marine Sediments
		3.2. OPPs in Seawater
	4. Organophosphorus Pesticides Toxicity  on Non-Target Organisms
		4.1 Mode of Action of OPPs
		4.2. Bioaccumulation and Bioconcentration of OPPs in Marine Biota
		4.3. Common Effects and Toxicity on Marine Biota
		4.4. Effects on Human Health
	Conclusion
	References
	Biographical Sketch
Chapter 135
Removal of Emerging Organic Pollutants from Seawater Using  Photoactivated Persulfate
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Efficiency of SO4●– -Based AOPs in Saline Waters
	Radicals Distribution in Saline Waters:  Kinetics Modeling Data
	Experimental
	Efficiency of UV/Persulfate Process in Seawater:  CB Degradation
	Evidence of RCS Implication
	Role of Bromide Ions
	Overall Effect of Seawater Salinity
	Impact of Solution pH and Pollutant Concentration
	Impact of Surfactants
	Conclusion
	References
	Biographical Sketches
Chapter 136
Diversity and Classification  of Dinoflagellates
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Basal Dinoflagellates
	Unarmored Dinoflagellates (Gymnodiniphycidae)
	Thecate Dinoflagellates (Peridiniphycidae)
		Prorocentroids and Dinophysoids
		Gonyaulacales
		Peridinioids
		Thin-Walled Dinoflagellates
	Current Issues
	Classification
	References
Chapter 137
Photosynthetic Pigments in Dinoflagellates
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Chlorophylls and Carotenoids Described  in Dinoflagellates
		Chlorophylls in Dinoflagellates
		Carotenoids in Dinoflagellates
	Chloroplast Pigment Types and Dinoflagellate Taxa
		Type-1: Peridinin-Containing
		Type-2: 4-Keto-Acyloxifucoxanthin-Containing
		Type-3: Acyloxifucoxanthin-Containing
		Type-4: Fucoxanthin-Containing
		Type-5: Alloxanthin-Containing
		Type-6: chl b-Containing
		Kleptoplasts and Endo/Ectocytobionts from Multiple Origins
	Linking Pigment and Plastid Diversity
	Pigment Composition and Habitat Types
	A Brief Methodology of Pigment Analyses
	Strategic Utility of Pigments
	Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
Chapter 138
Species Assemblies and Seasonal Succession of Dinoflagellates
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Species Assembly
		Species Do Not Assemble Randomly
		The Species Pool
		Functional Traits and Seasonal Succession
	The Role of Abiotic Factors in Species Assembly
		Filtering by the Physical Environment
		Dinoflagellate Adaptive Strategies in Response to the Physical Environment
		Life-Forms Based on Functional Traits and the Physical Environment
	Dinoflagellate Assembly Rules
	Dinoflagellate Species Assembly in Freshwater Lakes
	Biological Factors Shaping Dinoflagellate Communities
	Competition
		Resource Competition
		Diatom-Dinoflagellate Competition
		Interference Competition – Alleopathy
		Dinoflagellate – Cyanobacteria Competition in Lakes
	Natural Enemies
		Grazing by Metazoan Zooplankton
		Predation by Dinoflagellates and Mixotrophy
		Parasites and Dinoflagellate Dynamics
	The Role of Life-Cycle Transitions in Seasonal Succession
	Conclusion
	References
Chapter 139
Culture and Growth of Dinoflagellates
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Brief History of Dinoflagellate Cultures
	Protocol for Cultures
		Categories of Cultures
		Photobioreactors
		Turbulence: Photobioreactors
		Isolation of Cells
		Antibiotics
	Media for Autotrophs
	Culturing Mixotrophs
	Division Rates
		Monophasic
		Bayesian Generalized Logistic Model
	Division Rates (GK) of Cultured Athecate  and Thecate Dinoflagellates
		In Situ Division Rates
		Division Rates: Cultures
		Division Rates: Benthic Dinoflagellates
	Culture Conditions: Division Rates
		Salinity and Temperature
		Light
		Nutrient Phosphate and Nitrate
		Iron
	Mixotrophic Cultures
	Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
Chapter 140
Growth and Feeding Behaviour  of Mixotrophic Dinophysis Species  in Laboratory Cultures
	Abstract
	1. Introduction
	2. Biogeography of Dinophysis and Phalacroma Species Associated with DSP Events
	3. Isolation of Clonal Strains, Growth  and Feeding Process
		3.1. Importance of the Establishment of Clonal Culture Strains
		3.2. Establishment of Dinophysis Cultures
		3.3. Growth under Laboratory Conditions
		3.4. The Feeding Behavior, Cell Division and Other Biological Observations in Dinophysis
		3.5. Observation of the Chloroplasts Sequestration Process by Dinophysis
	4. The Simple Food Chain of Cryptophyte/ Mesodinium/Dinophysis
	Acknowledgments
	References
Chapter 141
Carbon Assimilation: Dinoflagellates
	Abstract
	Introduction
	General Methodology
		Photosynthetic Rates
		Photosynthetic Pigments
		Peridinin and Photoprotection
		Carbon Assimilation
		Uptake in Dark
		Uptake in Light
		Athecate Dinoflagellates
		Thecate Dinoflagellates
		Zooxanthellae
		Host Factor
		Irradiance
		Temperature
		Nutrients
		Response to Chemical Perturbation
		Survival Strategies
	Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
Chapter 142
Mixotrophy in Dinoflagellates:  Prey Selection, Physiology  and Ecological Importance
	Abstract
	Introduction
	A Short Historical Survey of Dinoflagellate  Mixotrophy Research
	Mixotrophy is a Widespread Phenomenon  among Dinoflagellates
	Prey Type, Feeding Mechanisms, Prey Size  and Prey Selectivity
		Prey Types
		Feeding Mechanisms, Prey Capture and Prey Size
		Toxin or Mucus Assisted Prey Capture
	Environmental Controls of Feeding,  Growth and Photosynthesis
		Constitutive Mixotrophs (CMs)
		Non Constitutive Mixotrophs (NCMs)
		Species That Harbour Intact Symbionts
		Species That Harbour “Reduced Endosymbionts”
		Species That Only Sequester the Chloroplasts
	Importance of Mixotrophic Dinoflagellates as Grazers  in Natural Waters
	Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
Chapter 143
Ecophysiology and Bloom Dynamics of Karenia with Emphasis on Karenia brevis  in Florida Waters
	Abstract
	1. Introduction
		1.1. Karenia and Algal Blooms
		1.2. Taxonomy and Distribution
		1.3. Toxins and Their Effects
	2. Life Cycle, Behavior and Physiology of K. brevis  (with Contrasts and Parallels for K. mikimotoi)
		2.1. Life History, Diel Cycle and Vertical Migration
		2.2. Cell Growth and Its Requisites
	3. Bloom Dynamics of K. brevis
		3.1. The Karenia Assemblage
		3.2. Bloom Frequency, Duration, and Large-Scale Area Coverage
		3.3. Bloom Initiation, Growth, Maintenance, and Termination
		3.4. Comparison with K. mikimotoi Blooms
		3.5. K. brevis Bloom Dynamics and the Life-Form Selection Approach
	Acknowledgments
	References
	Biographical Sketches
Chapter 144
Pfiesteria: A Common Estuarine Dinoflagellate with a Colorful Past
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Taxonomy
	Pfiesteria Life Cycle
	Geographic Distribution of the PLDs
	Ecology and Nutrition
	Impacts
		Fish Kills
		Lesions
		Fish Bioassays and Micropredation
		Human Health
	Identification and Characterization of  Pfiesteria spp. Toxins
	Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
Chapter 145
Karlodinium veneficum: Still Blooming  and Toxic Sixty-Two Years Later
	Abstract
	Introduction
		Characterization of Gymnodinium (Karlodinium) veneficum PLY103
		Pigmentation
		The Toxin from Gymnodinium veneficum: It’s a Karlotoxin
		Karlotoxin Identification for the Norway Strains
		Karlotoxin Potency
		Determination of Goby Kill Units
		Sterol Dependency of Toxicity
		Can PLY103 Eat?
		Toxin Production during Batch Culturing for the Norwegian Strains
		Genome Size Variation in K. veneficum Strains
		DNA Base Composition Variation in K. veneficum Strains
		Cell Cycle
		Cell Cycle and Toxicity
		Life Cycle
			Asexual Reproduction
			Sexual Reproduction
		Swimming Behavior
		Ecology and Toxicity in K. veneficum
		Global Distribution and Potential Roles of Karlotoxin in  Karlodinium veneficum
		K. veneficum Distribution and Reported Blooms
		Top Down Forces Regulating K. veneficum Abundance
		Synthesis: Why Does K. veneficum (Sometimes) Form Ichthyotoxic HABs?
	Acknowledgments
	References
Chapter 146
Ciguatera-Causing Dinoflagellates in the Genera Gambierdiscus and Fukuyoa: Distribution, Ecophysiology and Toxicology
	Abstract
	1. Introduction
	2. Biodiversity of Gambierdiscus and Fukuyoa spp.
	3. Global Distribution of Gambierdiscus and Fukuyoa spp.
	4. Ecophysiology
		4.1. Gambierdiscus/Fukuyoa spp. Preferred Habitats
		4.2. In Vitro Growth
	5. Toxicology
		5.1. Chemodiversity of Secondary Metabolites
		5.2. Modes of Action of Bioactive Compounds
		5.3. Toxin Production in Gambierdiscus and Fukuyoa spp.
			5.3.1. CTXs Production
			5.3.2. MTXs Production
			5.3.3. Biotic Factors Influencing Toxin Production in Gambierdiscus and Fukuyoa Spp.
				5.3.3.1. Genetics of Toxin Production
				5.3.3.2. Growth Stage
				5.3.3.3. Contribution of Bacterial Flora
			5.3.4. Abiotic Factors Influencing Toxin Production in Gambierdiscus and Fukuyoa spp.
		5.4. Ecological Relevance of Ciguatera-Related Compounds
	6. Socio-Economic Impacts of Ciguatera Poisoning
		6.1. Ciguatera Poisoning Impact on Health-Related Expenses
		6.2. Ciguatera Poisoning Impact on Local Fisheries
		6.3. Ciguatera Poisoning Impact on International Trade
		6.4. Ciguatera Poisoning Impact on Tourism
		6.5. Ciguatera Poisoning as a Cause of Lifestyle and Tradition Upheaval
		6.6. Ciguatera Poisoning before the Law
	Conclusion
	References
Chapter 147
Diarrhetic Shellfish Poisoning
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Chemistry and Bioactivities
	Toxin Contents and Profiles in Dinophysis spp.
	Accumulation and Metabolism of Toxins in Shellfish
	Instrumental Analytical Methods
		Liquid Chromatography (LC)/ Mass Spectrometric (MS) Detection
		Liquid Chromatography (LC)/ Fluorometric (FL) Detection
		Quantitative Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy (qNMR)
	References
Chapter 148
The Toxic Marine Thecate Dinoflagellate Pyrodinium bahamense
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Taxonomy and Biology
		Thecal Morphology
		Varietal Status of Pyrodinium bahamense
		Reproduction
		Bioluminescence
		Saxitoxin Production
		Sterol Production
	Ecological Significance
		Ecological Niches
		Saxitoxins in the Food Web
		Bloom Dynamics
		Bacteria Interaction
	Conclusion: Knowledge Gaps and Suggestions for  Future Research
	Acknowledgments
	References
Chapter 149
Ecology and Range Expansion of Noctiluca scintillans in the Global Oceans
	Abstract
	1. Introduction
	2. Distribution
	3. Description
	4. Growth and Grazing
	5. Remote Sensing of Noctiluca
	6. Emergence and Expansion of Noctiluca Blooms
	7. Socioeconomic Effects from Blooms of Noctiluca
	Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
Chapter 150
Putting It All Together: The Arabian  Gulf Dinoflagellates
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Dinoflagellate Distribution
	Distribution Limitations
	Xenobiodiversity and Plausible Ballast  Water Introductions
	Harmful Algal Blooms in the Gulf
	Conclusion
	Recommendations
	Acknowledgment
	References
Chapter 151
Dinoflagellates and Global  Environmental Change
	Abstract
	1. Introduction
	2. Case Studies from the Oslofjord  and Skagerrak Fossil Record
	3. Case Studies of Possible Anthropogenic Transport  of Dinoflagellate Species via Ship’s Ballast Water  or Translocation of Shellfish Products
	4. Dinoflagellates as Indicators of Ocean Currents  and Bioregions
	5. Dinoflagellates and Climate Change
	References
Chapter 152
Evolution of Dinoflagellate Genomics  and Gene Expression of Toxins
	Abstract
	1. Dinoflagellates
	2. Dinoflagellate Genomics
	3. Dinoflagellate Toxins
		3.1. Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning (PSP) Toxin
		3.2. Neurotoxic Shellfish Poisoning (NSP) Toxin
		3.3. Diarrhetic Shellfish Poisoning (DSP) Toxin
		3.4. Ciguatera Fish Poisoning (CFP) Toxin
		3.5. Azaspiracid Poisoning (AZP) Toxin
	4. Dinoflagellate Toxin Synthesis
	5. Applications for Detection and Quantification of  Toxic Dinoflagellate
	6. Dinoflagellate Bioactives: Potential Applications
	Conclusion
	References
Chapter 153
Impacts and Management of Dinoflagellate Harmful Blooms
	Abstract
	1. Introduction
	2. Impacts of Harmful Dinoflagellate Blooms
		2.1. Direct Impacts on Human Health
		2.2. Losses in Shellfish and Finfish Aquaculture
		2.3. Societal Losses: Tourism and Culture
		2.4. Losses on Desalination Plants
		2.5. Impacts on Marine Organisms
	3. Prevention, Management and Mitigation
		3.1. Prevention: Monitoring and Scientific Research
		3.2. Management and Mitigation
	4. How to Progress on the Estimation of the Economic Costs of Harmful Dinoflagellate Blooms?
	Acknowledgments
	References
Chapter 154
Mitigation of the Effects of Harmful Algal Blooms Originated by Dinoflagellates
	Abstract
	1. Introduction
	2. Actions on Phytoplankton Populations
		2.1. Inoculum Reduction
		2.2. Flocculation/Sedimentation of Algae from the Water Column
		2.3. Chemical Methods to Kill Algae
		2.4. Biological Methods
			2.4.1. Predation
			2.4.2. Parasitism
	3. Actions on the Environment
	4. Actions on the Accumulation of Toxic or Noxious Substances in Fish and Shellfish
		4.1. Actions on the Accessibility of the Harmful Algae to the  Cultured Organisms
		4.2. Actions on Toxin Accumulation
		4.3. Actions on the Final Product
			4.3.1. Selection of Individuals
			4.3.2. Selective Evisceration
			4.3.3. Industrial Processing
	5. Regulation and Monitoring
	References
Chapter 155
U.S. Offshore Aquaculture  Regulation and Development(
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Background
		Seafood Production
		Aquaculture Overview
		Offshore Aquaculture
	Federal Government Involvement in Aquaculture
		U.S. Department of Agriculture
		Department of the Interior
		Department of Commerce
	Offshore Aquaculture Challenges
		Current Regulatory Framework
			Federal Permits to Conduct Aquaculture in the Federal Waters
				Section 10 Permits
				National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System Permit
				Fishing (Aquaculture) Permit
			Federal Consultation and Review Requirements
				Coastal Zone Management Act
				National Environmental Policy Act
				Endangered Species Act and Marine Mammal Protection Act
				MSA Essential Fish Habitat
				National Marine Sanctuary Act
				National Historic Preservation Act
				Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act
			Other Authorizations and Approvals
		Environmental Concerns
			Fish Waste
			Fish Diseases
			Drugs and Other Chemicals
			Escapes, Genetic Concerns, and Invasive Species
			Interactions with Other Species
			Aquaculture Feeds and Related Issues
				Feed Production and Use
				Conversion of Aquaculture Feed to Fish Flesh
				Substitutes for Fish Meal and Oil
				Fish Health
				Human Health and Preferences
				Sustainability Concerns
		Economics, International Conditions, and Stakeholder Concerns
			Factors Related to the Economic Viability of Offshore Aquaculture
				Demand
				Supply
			Private Benefits and Externalities
			International Factors and Domestic Experiences
				Trade
				U.S. Experiences
				Offshore Development in Other Countries
			Stakeholder Concerns and Aquaculture Development
	Institutional Needs and Industry Support
		Regulatory Framework for Offshore Aquaculture
			Lead Agency
			Permits and Leases
			Conditions of Use
			Other Management Entities
			Federal Support for Offshore Aquaculture
	Potential Issues for Congress
	Congressional Actions
		116th Congress
		115th Congress
		Congressional Actions Prior to the 115th Congress
	Conclusion
Chapter 156
An Approach to Determining Economic Impacts of U.S. Aquaculture(
	Abstract
	Executive Summary
	1. Introduction
		1.1. Purpose and Organization of the Study
	2. Integrating Domestic Aquaculture Production Impacts into Fisheries Economics of the U.S.
		2.1. Wild Domestic Harvest in Fisheries Economics of the U.S.
		2.2. Aquaculture Integration
	3. Case Studies
		3.1. Crawfish Aquaculture
			3.1.1. Crawfish Production Data
			3.1.2. Crawfish Economic Impacts
		3.2. Oyster Aquaculture
			3.2.1. Oyster Production Data
			3.2.2. Oyster Economic Impacts
		3.3. Clam Aquaculture
			3.3.1. Clam Production Data
			3.3.2. Clam Economic Impacts
		3.4. Salmon Aquaculture
			3.4.1. Salmon Production Data
			3.4.2. Salmon Economic Impacts
	4. Aggregate Summary and Analysis
		4.1. Overview
		4.2. Demonstration - Using Analysis for Future Impacts
			4.2.1. Estimating Increase in First Sales Value
			4.2.2. Estimating Total Impact and Jobs of First Sales Value
			4.2.3. Including Downstream Impacts
	Conclusion and Recommendations
	Acknowledgments
	References
Chapter 157
Saltonstall-Kennedy Act: Background and Issues(
	Abstract
	Introduction
	The Saltonstall-Kennedy Act
		Current Provisions
		History of the Saltonstall-Kennedy Act
		Revenue
		Use of Funds
		Operations, Research, and Facilities Account
			Remaining Funding
			Saltonstall-Kennedy Grant Program
	Issues for Congress
		Congressional Actions
			Funding Allocation
			Stopping the Transfer to the Operations, Research, and Facilities Account
		American Fisheries Advisory Committee Act
	Appendix. History of Financing under  the Saltonstall-Kennedy Act
Chapter 158
American Fisheries Advisory Committee Act(
	Section 1. Short Title
	Section 2. American Fisheries Advisory Committee
	Section 3. Expansion of Specified Purposes of Fisheries Research and Development Projects Grants Program  to Include Fisheries Research and Development Projects
	Section 4. Public Availability of Grants Proposals
	Purpose of the Bill
	Background and Need for Legislation
	Committee Action
	Hearings
	Section-by-Section Analysis
		Section 1. Short Title
		Section 2. American Fisheries Advisory Committee
		Section 3. Expansion of Specified Purposes of Fisheries Research and Development Projects Grants Program to Include Fisheries Research and Development Projects
		Section 4. Public Availability of Grants Proposals
	Committee Oversight Findings and Recommendations
	Compliance with House Rule XIII  and Congressional Budget Act
	Earmark Statement
	Unfunded Mandates Reform Act Statement
	Federal Advisory Committee Act Statement
	Existing Programs
	Applicability to Legislative Branch
	Preemption of State, Local, or Tribal Law
	Changes in Existing Law Made by the Bill, as Reported
	Act of August 11, 1939
	Supplemental, Minority, Additional, or Dissenting Views
Chapter 159
Fishery Disaster Assistance (Updated)(
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Disaster Requirements and Procedures
		Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act
		MSA Regional Coastal Disaster Assistance
		Interjurisdictional Fisheries Act
			Other Potential Sources of Assistance
	Secretarial Disaster Determinations
		State Role
		Fishing Capacity Reduction Programs
		Selected Fishery Failure Cases
			West Coast Salmon Ocean Troll Fishery (Sacramento)
			New England Red Tide
			Gulf of Mexico Fisheries (Hurricanes Katrina and Rita)
			California Dungeness and Rock Crab Fishery
	Potential Issues for Congress
		Timing of Relief
		Long-Term Management Approaches
		Defining Fishery Failures
		Who Benefits?
		Aquaculture, Subsistence, and Recreational Fisheries
		Recent Congressional Actions
			Fishery Failures: Urgently Needed Disaster Declarations Act
			Other Bills Introduced in the 116th Congress
			Recent Disaster Determinations and Appropriations
Chapter 160
Mixed-Use Fisheries: South Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico Councils Would Benefit from Documented Processes for  Allocation Reviews(
	Why GAO Did This Study
	What GAO Recommends
	What GAO Found
	Abbreviations
	Background
		Fisheries Allocations
	South Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico Councils Have Established and Revised Allocations to Varying Degrees
		South Atlantic Council Has Established Allocations for Almost All Mixed-Use Fish Stocks and Revised Most of Those Allocations in 2012
		Gulf of Mexico Council Has Established Allocations for Certain Mixed-Use Fish Stocks and Revised Three of Those Allocations in 2008
	Various Sources of Information May Be Available to Help NMFS and the Councils Conduct Allocation Reviews
		Trends in Catch and Landings
		Stock Assessments
		Economic Analyses
		Social Indicators
		Ecosystem Models
	South Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico Councils Developed Criteria for Initiating Allocation Reviews, but Not Processes for Conducting or Documenting Them
		Both Councils Established Criteria for Initiating Allocation Reviews
		Neither Council Has Developed a Process for How to Conduct or Document Allocation Reviews, Although the Gulf of Mexico Council Began Taking Steps to Develop One
	Conclusion
	Recommendations for Executive Action
	Agency Comments and Our Evaluation
	Appendix I: Mixed-Use Fisheries Allocations in the South Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico Fishery Management  Council Regions
	Appendix II: Comments from the Department of Commerce
Index
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